A Subah is a term for a province or state in several South Asian languages . It was introduced by the Mughal Empire to refer to its subdivisions or provinces; and was also adopted by other polities of the Indian subcontinent . The word is derived from Arabic and Persian . The governor/ruler of a Subah was known as a subahdar (sometimes also referred to as a " Subeh " ), which later became subedar to refer to an officer in the Indian and Pakistani armies. The subahs were established by Padishah (emperor) Akbar during his administrative reforms of the years 1572–1580; initially, they numbered 12, but his conquests expanded the number of subahs to 15 by the end of his reign. Subahs were divided into Sarkars , or districts. Sarkars were further divided into Parganas or Mahals . His successors, most notably Aurangzeb , expanded the number of subahs further through their conquests. As the empire began to dissolve in the early 18th century, many subahs became de facto independent or came under the influence of the Marathas or the suzerainty of the East India Company .
72-560: Subahdar , also known as Nazim , was one of the designations of a governor of a Subah (province) during the Khalji dynasty of Bengal , Mamluk dynasty , Khalji dynasty , Tughlaq dynasty , and the Mughal era who was alternately designated as Sahib-i-Subah or Nazim. The word, Subahdar is of Persian origin. The Subahdar was the head of the Mughal provincial administration. He was assisted by
144-458: A faqir . In 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. It is reported that he mentioned his grief about this to fellow Mughal commanders. Thereafter, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat . His rule in Gujarat was marked with religious disputes but he was rewarded for bringing stability. In 1647, Shah Jahan moved Aurangzeb from Gujarat to be governor of Balkh , replacing
216-633: A Mughal subah in 1692. During the Mughal Empire, the Punjab region consisted of three subahs: Lahore, Multan, and parts of Delhi subah. The Sikh Empire (1799–1849), originating in the Punjab region, also used the term Suba for the provinces it administered under its territorial delineation, of which there were five. In modern usage in Urdu language, the term is used as a word for province , while
288-469: A companion to Dara Shukoh. In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana , which he did with ease. In 1638, Aurangzeb married Nawab Bai , later known as Rahmat al-Nisa. That same year, Aurangzeb dispatched an army to subdue the Portuguese coastal fortress of Daman , however his forces met stubborn resistance and were eventually repulsed at
360-457: A complete ban on music. He sought to codify Hanafi law by the work of several hundred jurists, called Fatawa 'Alamgiri . It is possible the War of Succession and continued incursions combined with Shah Jahan's spending made cultural expenditure impossible. He learnt that at Multan , Thatta , and particularly at Varanasi , the teachings of Hindu Brahmins attracted numerous Muslims. He ordered
432-438: A consequence of his return. The Deccan was a relatively impoverished area, this caused him to lose out financially. The area required grants were required from Malwa and Gujarat in order to maintain the administration. The situation caused ill-feeling between him and his father Shah Jahan who insisted that things could be improved if Aurangzeb made efforts to develop cultivation. Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan to extend to
504-471: A gurudwara at Dehradun, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot , Umananda Temple of Guwahati and the Shatrunjaya Jain temples, among others. Numerous new temples were built, as well. Contemporary court-chronicles mention hundreds of temple which were demolished by Aurangzab or his chieftains, upon his order. In September 1669, he ordered the destruction of Vishvanath Temple at Varanasi, which
576-544: A higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which led to considerable dislike of Aurangzeb's economic policies; a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code. According to Marc Jason Gilbert, Aurangzeb ordered the jizya fees to be paid in person, in front of a tax collector, where the non Muslims were to recite a verse in the Quran which referred to their inferior status as non Muslims. This decision led to protests and lamentations among
648-469: A late stage, a vast sum of money had been expended for little gain. Further unsuccessful military involvements followed, as Aurangzeb was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh . His efforts in 1649 and 1652 to dislodge the Safavids at Kandahar which they had recently retaken after a decade of Mughal control, both ended in failure as winter approached. The logistical problems of supplying an army at
720-414: A military tax on non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military service, after an abatement for a span of hundred years, in what was critiqued by many Hindu rulers, family-members of Aurangzeb, and Mughal court-officials. The specific amount varied with the socioeconomic status of a subject and tax-collection were often waived for regions hit by calamities; also, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped,
792-413: A new one. Subah (province) In the modern context, subah ( صوبہ ) is used in several Pakistani languages (most notably Punjabi , Balochi , and Urdu ) to refer to a province of Pakistan. Initially, after the administrative reforms of Akbar , the Mughal empire was divided into 12 subahs: Kabul, Lahore, Multan, Delhi, Agra, Avadh, Illahabad, Bihar, Bangal, Malwa, Ajmer and Gujarat. After
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#1732765160255864-525: A result of the administrative reform by Akbar(Mughal Emperor): The subahs which added later were (with dates established): Aurangzeb Muhi al-Din Muhammad (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known by the title Aurangzeb , and also by his regnal name Alamgir I , was the sixth Mughal emperor , reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707. Under his emperorship, Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent with territory spanning nearly
936-460: A series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1658, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi. On 10 August 1659, Dara was executed on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to Shah Jahan. This was the first prominent execution of Aurangzeb based on accusations of being influenced by Hinduism, however some sources argue it
1008-473: A system inherited from the time of British rule, in which a mayor was the head of a district . Under the Local Government Act , however, the role of the nazim became distinct from that of a mayor , with more power. The nazim system was introduced after the commissionerate system, imposed during British rule, was lifted by the government of Pakistan. This Local Government act was imposed in
1080-531: A younger son, Murad Baksh , who had proved ineffective there. The area was under attack from Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. The Mughal artillery and muskets were matched by the skirmishing skills of their opponents which led to a stalemate. Aurangzeb discovered that his army could not live off the land, which was devastated by war. It is recorded that during the battle against the Uzbeks during this campaign, Aurangzeb dismounted from his elephant ride to recite prayer to
1152-545: Is elected by the nazims of Union Councils, Union Councillors, and Tehsil Nazims, who themselves are elected directly by the votes of the local public. The name which is used for the president of Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba , the Islamic Union of Students in Pakistan, is Nazim-e-ala ( ناظمِ اعلیٰ ). The nazim-e-ala is elected for one year, and after completing that tenure, all the members of IJT who are called (Arkaan) elect
1224-463: Is the title in Urdu of the chief elected official of a local government in Pakistan , such as a district , tehsil , union council , or village council. Likewise, a deputy mayor is known as a Naib nazim ( نائب ناظِم ). The word naib in Urdu literally means "assistant" or "deputy" hence Naib nazim was similar in function to a deputy mayor. He was also custodian of the house. Pakistan originally had
1296-767: The Battle of Samugarh in May 1658 cemented his sovereignty and his suzerainty was acknowledged throughout the Empire. After Shah Jahan recovered from illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort . Aurangzeb's reign is characterized by a period of rapid military expansion, with several dynasties and states being overthrown by the Mughals. The Mughals also surpassed Qing China as
1368-757: The sarkar of Telangana from Berar and made it into a separate subah. In 1657, it was merged with Zafarabad Bidar subah. Agra was renamed Akbarabad in 1629 and Delhi became Shahjahanbad in 1648. Kashmir was carved out of Kabul, Thatta (Sindh) out of Multan, and Bidar out of Ahmadnagar. For some time Qandahar was a separate subah under the Mughal Empire but it was lost to Persia in 1648. Aurangzeb added Bijapur (1686), Sira (1687) and Golkonda (1687) as new subahs. There were 22 subahs during his reign. These were Kabul, Kashmir, Lahore, Multan, Delhi, Agra, Avadh, Illahabad, Bihar, Bangalah, Orissa, Malwa, Ajmer, Gujarat, Berar, Khandesh, Aurangabad, Bidar, Thatta, Bijapur, Sira and Haidarabad (Golkonda). Aurangzeb made Arcot
1440-498: The subahdars of these provinces to demolish the schools and the temples of non-Muslims. Aurangzeb also ordered subahdars to punish Muslims who dressed like non-Muslims. The executions of the antinomian Sufi mystic Sarmad Kashani and the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur bear testimony to Aurangzeb's religious policy; the former was beheaded on multiple accounts of heresy, the latter, according to Sikhs, because he objected to Aurangzeb's forced conversions . Aurangzeb had also banned
1512-751: The Deccan the zabt revenue system used in northern India. Murshid Quli Khan organised a survey of agricultural land and a tax assessment on what it produced. To increase revenue, Murshid Quli Khan granted loans for seed, livestock, and irrigation infrastructure. This led the Deccan region to return to prosperity. Aurangzeb proposed to resolve financial difficulties by attacking the dynastic occupants of Golconda (the Qutb Shahis ) and Bijapur (the Adil Shahis ). This proposal would also extend Mughal influence by accruing more lands. Aurangzeb advanced against
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#17327651602551584-484: The Deccan. After regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at Banares in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces, the two brothers having agreed to partition
1656-540: The Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess Dilras Banu , posthumously known as Rabia-ud-Daurani. She was his first wife and chief consort as well as his favourite. He also had an infatuation with a slave girl, Hira Bai , whose death at a young age greatly affected him. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, Udaipuri Mahal . The latter had formerly been
1728-584: The Persian concept of kinship, the Farr-i-Aizadi, and based his rule on the Quranic concept of kingship. Shah Jahan had already moved away from the liberalism of Akbar , although in a token manner rather than with the intent of suppressing Hinduism, and Aurangzeb took the change still further. Though the approach to faith of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan was more syncretic than Babur , the founder of
1800-471: The Sultan of Bijapur and besieged Bidar . The Kiladar (governor or captain) of the fortified city, Sidi Marjan, was mortally wounded when a gunpowder magazine exploded. After twenty-seven days of fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals and Aurangzeb continued his advance. Aurangzeb suspected Dara had exerted influence on his father. He believed that he was on the verge of victory in both instances, and
1872-604: The advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power. Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of Ahmednagar during the reign of the Nizam Shahi boy-prince Murtaza Shah III , the emperor dispatched Aurangzeb, who in 1636 brought
1944-631: The celebration of the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz along with other un-Islamic ceremonies, and encouraged conversions to Islam; instances of persecution against particular Muslim factions were also reported. Yohanan Friedmann has reported that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical thought of Ahmad Sirhindi inspired the religious orthodoxy policy of Aurangzeb. Shortly after coming to power, Aurangzeb remitted more than 80 long-standing taxes affecting all of his subjects. In 1679, Aurangzeb chose to re-impose jizya ,
2016-514: The challengers were taking advantage of the situation. Shah Shuja in Bengal , where he had been governor since 1637 crowned himself King at RajMahal. He brought his cavalry, artillery and river flotilla upriver towards Agra. Near Varanasi his forces confronted a defending army sent from Delhi under the command of Prince Sulaiman Shukoh, son of Dara Shukoh, and Raja Jai Singh. Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in
2088-407: The conquest of Deccan , he created three more subahs there: Berar, Khandesh (initially renamed Dandesh in 1601) and Ahmadnagar (in 1636 renamed as Daulatabad and subsequently as Aurangabad). Jahangir increased the number of subahs to 17 during his reign; Orissa being carved out of Bangal in 1607. The number of subahs increased to 22 under Shah Jahan . In his 8th regnal year, Shah Jahan separated
2160-407: The country in 2001. One exception, however, is Islamabad , the federal capital, where the commissionerate system remained in effect. In 2009, the new government restored the commissionerate system. All the provinces introduced their own new local government systems. A Nazim was also empowered to decide criminal cases. The Nazim was the lowliest of elected officials in Pakistan. The district nazim,
2232-400: The elephant was documented in Persian and Urdu verses. Aurangzeb was nominally in charge of the force sent to Bundelkhand with the intent of subduing the rebellious ruler of Orchha , Jhujhar Singh , who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and was refusing to atone for his actions. By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took
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2304-489: The emboldened Aurangzeb's advance, Dara scrambled to form alliances in order but found that Aurangzeb had already courted key potential candidates. When Dara's disparate, hastily concocted army clashed with Aurangzeb's well-disciplined, battle-hardened force at the battle of Samugarh in late May, neither Dara's men nor his generalship were any match for Aurangzeb. Dara had also become over-confident in his own abilities and, by ignoring advice not to lead in battle while his father
2376-480: The empire once they had gained control of it. The two armies clashed at Dharmat in April 1658, with Aurangzeb being the victor. Shuja was chased through Bihar . The victory of Aurangzeb proved this to be a poor decision by Dara Shikoh, who now had a defeated force on one front and a successful force unnecessarily pre-occupied on another. Realising that his recalled Bihar forces would not arrive at Agra in time to resist
2448-541: The empire, Aurangzeb's position is not so obvious. His emphasis on sharia competed, or was directly in conflict, with his insistence that zawabit or secular decrees could supersede sharia. The chief qazi refusing to crown him in 1659, Aurangzeb had a political need to present himself as a "defender of the sharia" due to popular opposition to his actions against his father and brothers. Despite claims of sweeping edicts and policies, contradictory accounts exist. Historian Katherine Brown has argued that Aurangzeb never imposed
2520-429: The empire, though this was not followed absolutely in regions such as Gujarat , where lands granted in in'am to Charans were not affected. In around 1679, he ordered destruction of several prominent temples, including those of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur, which were patronaged by rebels. The Jama Masjid at Golkunda was similarly treated, after it was found that its ruler had built it to hide revenues from
2592-691: The end of a long siege. At some point, Aurangzeb married Aurangabadi Mahal , who was a Circassian or Georgian . In 1644, Aurangzeb's sister, Jahanara , suffered from burns when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra . This event precipitated a family crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately but rather three weeks later. Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects. Shah Jahan
2664-464: The ensuing war of succession to the Mughal throne. Aurangzeb and his brother were consequently reunited with Shah Jahan in Agra . As a Mughal prince, Aurangzeb received an education covering subjects like combat, military strategy, and administration. His curriculum also included areas like Islamic studies, Turkic and Persian literature . Aurangzeb grew up fluent in the Hindustani language . He
2736-517: The entirety of the Indian subcontinent . Aurangzeb and the Mughals belonged to a branch of the Timurid dynasty . He held administrative and military posts under his father Shah Jahan ( r. 1628–1658 ) and gained recognition as an accomplished military commander. Aurangzeb served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636–1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645–1647. He jointly administered
2808-429: The extremity of the empire, combined with the poor quality of armaments and the intransigence of the opposition have been cited by John Richards as the reasons for failure. A third attempt in 1653, led by Dara Shikoh, met with the same outcome. Aurangzeb became viceroy of the Deccan again after he was replaced by Dara Shukoh in the attempt to recapture Kandahar. Aurangbad's two jagirs (land grants) were moved there as
2880-411: The fact that Dara was a poor general and leader. It also ignores the fact that factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology." Marc Gaborieau, professor of Indian studies at l' École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales , explains that "The loyalties of [officials and their armed contingents] seem to have been motivated more by their own interests, the closeness of
2952-421: The family relation and above all the charisma of the pretenders than by ideological divides." Muslims and Hindus did not divide along religious lines in their support for one pretender or the other nor, according to Chandra, is there much evidence to support the belief that Jahanara and other members of the royal family were split in their support. Jahanara, certainly, interceded at various times on behalf of all of
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3024-549: The fight had ended fatally for me it would not have been a matter of shame. Death drops the curtain even on emperors; it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did! Historians have interpreted this as an unjust slur against his brothers. Shuja had also faced the elephant and wounded it with his spear. Dara had been too far away to come to their assistance. Three days later Aurangzeb turned fifteen. Shah Jahan weighed him and presented him with his weight in gold along with other presents worth Rs. 200,000. His bravery against
3096-517: The forces loyal to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled to Arakan (in present-day Burma), where he was executed by the local rulers. With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father immured in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. Aurangzeb claimed that Dara was no longer a Muslim and accused him of poisoning the Mughal Grand Vizier Saadullah Khan . After
3168-457: The governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal began to annex more territory and this prompted Aurangzeb to march from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the battle of Khajwa , where Shah Shuja and his chain-mail armoured war elephants were routed by
3240-626: The maintenance of shrines of worship but also (often) ordered their destruction. Modern historians reject the thought-school of colonial and nationalist historians about these destruction being guided by religious zealotry; rather, the association of temples with sovereignty, power and authority is emphasized upon. Whilst constructing mosques were considered an act of royal duty to subjects, there are also several firmans in Aurangzeb's name, supporting temples, maths , chishti shrines, and gurudwaras , including Mahakaleshwar temple of Ujjain ,
3312-496: The masses as well as Hindu court officials. In order to meet state expenditures, Aurangzeb had ordered increases in land taxes; the burden of which fell heavily upon the Hindu Jats. The reimposition of the jizya encouraged Hindus to flee to areas under East India Company jurisdiction, under which policies of religious sufferance and pretermissions of religious taxes prevailed. Aurangzeb issued land grants and provided funds for
3384-419: The number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration rose by half, to represent 31.6% of Mughal nobility, the highest in the Mughal era. Many of them were Marathas and Rajputs , who were his political allies. However, Aurangzeb encouraged high ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam. Under his reign, the Mughal Empire contributed to the world's GDP by nearly 25%, surpassing Qing China , making it
3456-496: The officials allow a woman to be burnt" . Although Aurangzeb's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds Ikram, later European travellers record that sati was not much practised in Mughal empire, and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all" by the end of Aurangzeb's reign. Historian Katherine Brown has noted that "The very name of Aurangzeb seems to act in
3528-483: The popular imagination as a signifier of politico-religious bigotry and repression, regardless of historical accuracy." The subject has also resonated in modern times with popularly accepted claims that he intended to destroy the Bamiyan Buddhas . As a political and religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to follow the secular-religious viewpoints of his predecessors after his ascension. He made no mention of
3600-512: The princes and was well-regarded by Aurangzeb even though she shared the religious outlook of Dara. In 1656, a general under Qutb Shahi dynasty named Musa Khan led an army of 12,000 musketeers to attack Aurangzeb, who was besieging Golconda Fort . Later in the same campaign, Aurangzeb, in turn, rode against an army consisting of 8,000 horsemen and 20,000 Karnataki musketeers. After making clear his desire for his son Dara to take over after him, Shah Jahan fell ill with stranguary in 1657. He
3672-505: The provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648–1652 and continued expeditions into the neighboring Safavid territories. In September 1657, Shah Jahan nominated his eldest and liberalist son Dara Shikoh as his successor, a move repudiated by Aurangzeb, who proclaimed himself emperor in February 1658. In April 1658, Aurangzeb defeated the allied army of Shikoh and the Kingdom of Marwar at the Battle of Dharmat . Aurangzeb's decisive victory at
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#17327651602553744-559: The provincial Diwan , Bakhshi , Faujdar , Kotwal , Qazi , Sadr , Waqa-i-Navis , Qanungo and Patwari . The Subahdars were normally appointed from among the Mughal princes or the officers holding the highest mansabs (ranks). A nazim ( pronounced [ˈnaːzɪm] , Urdu : ناظِم ; from the Arabic word for "organizer" or "convenor"), similar to a mayor , was the coordinator of cities and towns in Pakistan . Nazim
3816-654: The state; however desecration of mosques are rare due to their complete lack of political capital contra temples. In an order specific to Benaras, Aurangzeb invokes Sharia to declare that Hindus will be granted state-protection and temples won't be razed (but prohibits construction of any new temple); other orders to similar effect can be located. Richard Eaton, upon a critical evaluation of primary sources, counts 15 temples to have been destroyed during Aurangzeb's reign. Ian Copland and others reiterate Iqtidar Alam Khan who notes that, overall, Aurangzeb built more temples than he destroyed. Aurangzeb received tribute from all over
3888-441: The surprise of the opposing force commander. With the onset of winter, he and his father had to make an unsatisfactory deal with the Uzbeks. They had to give away territory in exchange for nominal recognition of Mughal sovereignty. The Mughal force suffered still further with attacks by Uzbeks and other tribesmen as it retreated through the snow to Kabul . By the end of this two-year campaign, into which Aurangzeb had been plunged at
3960-406: The unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted. The collectors were mandated to be Muslims. A majority of modern scholars reject that religious bigotry influenced the imposition; rather, realpolitik – economic constraints as a result of multiple ongoing battles and establishment of credence with the orthodox Ulemas – are held to be primary agents. Aurangzeb also enforced
4032-470: The word riyasat ( Urdu : ریاست , "princely state" in English) is used for (federated) state . The terminologies are based on the administrative structure of British India which was partially derived from the Mughal administrative structure. In modern times, the term subah is mainly used in Pakistan , where its four provinces are called "Subah" in the Urdu language. The twelve subahs created as
4104-411: The world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power, more than the entirety of Western Europe, and signaled proto-industrialization . Aurangzeb was an orthodox Muslim ruler. Subsequent to the policies of his three predecessors, he endeavored to make Islam a dominant force in his reign. However these efforts brought him into conflict with the forces that were opposed to this revival. Aurangzeb
4176-678: The world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power. The Mughal military gradually improved and became one of the strongest armies in the world. A staunch Muslim, Aurangzeb is credited with the construction of numerous mosques and patronizing works of Arabic calligraphy . He successfully imposed the Fatawa-i Alamgiri as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam. Although Aurangzeb suppressed several local revolts, he maintained cordial relations with foreign governments. Aurangzeb
4248-597: Was a follower of the Mujaddidi Order and a disciple of the son of the Punjabi saint, Ahmad Sirhindi . He sought to establish Islamic rule as instructed and inspired by him. Sheikh Muhammad Ikram stated that after returning from Kashmir, Aurangzeb issued order in 1663, to ban the practice of Sati , a Hindu practice to burn a widow whenever her husband passed away. Ikram recorded that Aurangzeb issued decree: "in all lands under Mughal control, never again should
4320-465: Was alive, he cemented the idea that he had usurped the throne. "After the defeat of Dara, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the fort of Agra where he spent eight long years under the care of his favourite daughter Jahanara." Aurangzeb then broke his arrangement with Murad Baksh, which probably had been his intention all along. Instead of looking to partition the empire between himself and Murad, he had his brother arrested and imprisoned at Gwalior Fort. Murad
4392-494: Was also fluent in his ancestral language of Chagatai Turkic , but similar to his predecessors, he preferred to use Persian . On 28 May 1633, a war elephant stampeded through the Mughal imperial encampment. Aurangzeb rode against the elephant and threw his spear at its head. He was unhorsed but escaped death. For his courage, Aurangzeb's father conferred on him the title of Bahadur (brave) and presented him with gifts. When chided for his recklessness, Aurangzeb replied: If
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#17327651602554464-583: Was born during the reign of his patrilineal grandfather Jahangir ( r. 1605–1627 ), the fourth emperor of the Mughal Empire . In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, eight-year-old Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shikoh were sent to the Mughal court in Lahore as hostages of their grandfather Jahangir and his wife, Nur Jahan , as part of their father's pardon deal. After Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged victorious in
4536-542: Was born in Dahod on 3 November 1618. His father was Emperor Shah Jahan ( r. 1628–1658 ), who hailed from the Mughal house of the Timurid dynasty . The latter was descended from Emir Timur ( r. 1370–1405 ), the founder of the Timurid Empire . Aurangzeb's mother Mumtaz Mahal was the daughter of the Persian nobleman Asaf Khan , who was the youngest son of vizier Mirza Ghiyas . Aurangzeb
4608-564: Was done for political reasons. Aurangzeb had his allied brother Prince Murad Baksh held for murder, judged and then executed. Aurangzeb was accused of poisoning his imprisoned nephew Sulaiman Shikoh . Having secured his position, Aurangzeb confined his frail father at the Agra Fort but did not mistreat him. Shah Jahan was cared for by Jahanara and died in 1666. Aurangzeb's imperial bureaucracy employed significantly more Hindus than that of his predecessors. Between 1679 and 1707,
4680-524: Was established by Raja Man Singh, whose grandson Jai Singh was believed to have facilitated Shivaji's escape. After the Jat rebellion in Mathura (early 1670), which killed the patron of the town-mosque, Aurangzeb suppressed the rebels and ordered for the city's Kesava Deo temple to be demolished, and replaced with an Eidgah . In 1672–73, Aurangzeb ordered the resumption of all grants held by Hindus throughout
4752-485: Was executed on 4 December 1661, ostensibly for the murder of the diwan of Gujarat. The allegation was encouraged by Aurangzeb, who caused the diwan's son to seek retribution for the death under the principles of Sharia law . Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and moved to the Punjab . The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals Jai Singh and Dilir Khan submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara's son, Suleiman Shikoh, escaped. Aurangzeb offered Shah Shuja
4824-414: Was frustrated that Shah Jahan chose then to settle for negotiations with the opposing forces rather than pushing for complete victory. The four sons of Shah Jahan all held governorships during their father's reign. The emperor favoured the eldest, Dara Shikoh . This had caused resentment among the younger three, who sought at various times to strengthen alliances between themselves and against Dara. There
4896-457: Was kept in seclusion and cared for by Dara in the newly built city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Rumours spread that Shah Jahan had died, which led to concerns among his younger sons. Subsequently, these younger sons took military actions seemingly in response but it is not known whether these preparations were made in the mistaken belief that the rumours of death of Shah Jahan were true and that Dara might be hiding it for political gain, or whether
4968-432: Was no Mughal tradition of primogeniture , the systematic passing of rule, upon an emperor's death, to his eldest son. Instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father and for brothers to war to the death among themselves. Historian Satish Chandra says that "In the ultimate resort, connections among the powerful military leaders, and military strength and capacity [were] the real arbiters". The contest for power
5040-415: Was outraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately dismissed him from his position of viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also no longer allowed to use red tents or to associate himself with the official military standard of the Mughal emperor. Other sources state that Aurangzeb was dismissed from his position because Aurangzeb left the life of luxury and became
5112-526: Was primarily between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb because, although all four sons had demonstrated competence in their official roles, it was around these two that the supporting cast of officials and other influential people mostly circulated. There were ideological differences – Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal in the mould of Akbar, while Aurangzeb was much more conservative – but, as historians Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf say, "To focus on divergent philosophies neglects
5184-559: Was the longest reigning Mughal Emperor. His empire was also one of the largest in Indian history. However, his emperorship has a complicated legacy. His critics, citing his actions against the non-Muslims and his conservative view of Islam, argue that he abandoned the legacy of pluralism and tolerance of the earlier Mughal emperors. Others, however, reject these assertions, arguing that he opposed bigotry against Hindus, Sikhs and Shia Muslims and that he employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors. Aurangzeb
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