Museology (also called museum studies or museum science ) is the study of museums . It explores the history of museums and their role in society, as well as the activities they engage in, including curating , preservation , public programming, and education .
115-516: The words that are used to describe the study of museums vary depending on language and geography. For example, while “museology” is becoming more prevalent in English, it is most commonly used to refer to the study of museums in French ( muséologie ), Spanish ( museología ), German ( Museologie ), Italian ( museologia ), and Portuguese ( museologia ) – while English speakers more often use
230-577: A Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered
345-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,
460-443: A curatorial module within a comprehensive diploma and M.A. program that engages critically with museum and heritage studies, the leading program on the continent. Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized : Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized : Hellēnikḗ ) is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within
575-425: A discourse of critical museology also emerged, intensifying around the turn of the 21st century. It arose from a similar critical discourse as New Museology and shares many of its features, so much so that many scholars disagree about the extent to which you can distinguish one from the other. In other words, while some scholars say that New Museology was a watershed moment in the late 20th century and critical museology
690-482: A distinct analytical approach. Scholars have identified that power relations of class, gender, and race are inscribed in the museum. Histories, theories, and practices of feminist curating have been explored in a series of conferences and symposia . The Vienna Method, subsequently called ISOTYPES was developed by the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum (Museum for Social and Economic Affairs), Vienna . With
805-508: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on
920-1087: A graduate program in 1994. In Germany, the Centre for Anthropological Research on Museums and Heritage is engaging with the social, cultural, and political issues facing contemporary museums. In Canada, two of the most innovative curating labs are the Making Culture Lab at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver and the Curating and Public Scholarship Lab at Concordia University in Montreal, which offered its inaugural International Field School in Critical Museology in May 2017. The African Programme in Museum and Heritage Studies in Cape Town includes
1035-451: A group with: Community involvement does not mean that local administrations, a unique historical heritage of European democracy, are irrelevant. On the contrary their role, to be effective, must involve people, going beyond the narrow circle of “ authorized personnel ”. Preservation, interpretation and management means that reading and communicating heritage values, providing new interpretations of it and raising its profile, are part of
1150-512: A large proportion of museum collections were taken as spoils of war, or otherwise removed without the consent of the people or community that owned them. Museums, along with their collections – and collectors – played a key role in establishing and reiterating the dominance of colonial Europe and narratives of cultural superiority. Critical museology was developed through questioning the foundational assumptions of museum studies and museums, including their history, architecture, display, programming, and
1265-590: A lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and
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#17327654684231380-400: A limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by
1495-427: A methodology used not only by artists, but also by other groups – including activists, museum visitors, and even museums themselves – as a way to democratize exhibitions, challenge dominant narratives, problematize the provenance of museum objects, and so on. A central aspect of Institutional Critique , some artist’s interventions have been co-organized or commissioned by museums themselves – like Fred Wilson ’s Mining
1610-459: A mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes ,
1725-494: A multi-vocal perspective and present critical narratives regarding current sociopolitical issues. Other history museums, however, keep nationalistic approaches pertaining to the 19th century. Some museums convey reflexive and critical narratives, while others enact as "mass mediums" oriented toward international tourist networks. These institutions tend to display spectacular exhibition designs and grant little space for complex narratives and critical messages. Scholars have identified
1840-543: A museum building but held in situ . Community members learn the proper ways of taking care of objects and ways for developing schematic exhibitions and activities through various workshops and internship opportunities. The ecomuseum concept was promoted in North America through the efforts of René Rivard, a Canadian museologist, and Pierre Mayrand , a professor at the University of Quebec in Montreal who helped
1955-581: A museum is James Luna ’s Artifact Piece , which was first performed at the San Diego Museum of Man in 1987, and then again at The Decade Show in New York in 1990. Luna, a Luiseño artist, lay almost naked in a display case filled with artifacts in order to challenge representations of Indigenous peoples in museums and the narratives that accompanied those representations, which suggested that Indigenous people and cultures were dead. The objects in
2070-508: A museum presenting a critical review of messages conveyed by the institution in the past can be found in the Royal Ontario Museum permanent exhibition, specifically in its Canadian history galleries. In this case, ROM curators have repurposed old dioramas as a way to reflect critically on past uses of dioramas to portray indigenous people’s cultures. The new ironic diorama questions this common practice in museums and points out
2185-657: A new role for museums as mediator in the process of cultural transition and the development of communities. In 1971, during the 9th triennial Conference of the International Council of Museums (ICOM) held in Grenoble, France under the theme: The museum in the service of man: today and tomorrow, Hugues de Varine , then Secretary General of ICOM, part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ), coined
2300-471: A permanent international Working Group to keep watch and make proposals on the theme territory-heritage-landscape." In the early 2017 on the basis of ideas, issues and debates raised by participants during the Forum a common vision was drawn and a provisional “Milan Cooperation Charter” was adopted. In the early 2017 the world platform for exchange and experience sharing between ecomuseums and community museums
2415-546: A recent transformation in the way museums define their functions and produce their programming strategies as these have become spaces for encounters and meaningful experiences. For instance, in The Metamorphosis of the Museal: From Exhibitionary to Experiential Complex and Beyond , Andreas Huyssen observes the museum, formerly conceived as "a container of the past and its accumulated objects”
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#17327654684232530-460: A state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in the early 19th century that
2645-794: A traveling performance art piece called The Couple in the Cage: Two Amerindiens Visit the West that reflected on the treatment and representation of Indigenous peoples in colonial contexts, and was performed in many different spaces, including Covent Gardens , the Walker Art Center , the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History , the Australia Museum , and the Field Museum . While there
2760-423: A way to disrupt conventional expectations and narratives. Another critical intervention in museums is the conception of permanent exhibitions, which are long-lasting galleries presenting the museum collections that critically reveal and approach the connections between the institution, its history and practices, and the cultural and social context in which the institution is embedded. This practice seeks to highlight
2875-525: Is a museum focused on the identity of a place, largely based on local participation and aiming to enhance the welfare and development of local communities . Ecomuseums originated in France , the concept being developed by Georges Henri Rivière and Hugues de Varine , who coined the term ‘ecomusée’ in 1971. The term "éco" is a shortened form for "écologie", but it refers especially to a new idea of holistic interpretation of cultural heritage , in opposition to
2990-533: Is a dynamic way in which communities preserve, interpret, and manage their heritage for a sustainable development. An Ecomuseum is based on a community agreement. — Declaration of Intent of the Long Net Workshop , Trento (Italy), May 2004 Dynamic way means to go beyond the formal aspect of an ecomuseum, beyond a simple set course, designed on paper; it is about designing real actions, able to change our society and improve our landscape. Community means
3105-604: Is a related but separate movement in the early 21st century, others argue that New Museology is an ongoing field of study that has many manifestations and names, one of which is critical museology The latest movements in museology tend to focus on museums being interdisciplinary , multi-vocal, accessible, and open to criticism. While these critical discourses dominate contemporary museology, there are many different kinds of museums that exist today, some are engaged in new and innovative practices, and others are more traditional and therefore, less critical. Operational museology refers to
3220-464: Is in the role of the people who live in the area and share a common culture. Residents define the community’s collections, not outside experts, and take responsibility for their care. Collections include intangible heritage such as traditional lifestyles, local skills and oral history, shared experiences and values, as well as tangible heritage such as important sites and buildings and archival materials. Usually collections are not gathered together inside
3335-486: Is intended as “an alternative mode of critical, intellectual practice – a form of ‘theorizing in the concrete’”. Over the last three decades there has been a proliferation of curating workshops, courses, and labs that engage with New Museology and critical museology in museum spaces, in universities, and elsewhere. For instance, the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College in New York was founded in 1990 and began offering
3450-835: Is no linear trajectory of decolonizing/Indigenizing work in museums, major milestones in Canada include the Indians of Canada Pavilion at Expo 67 ’; The Lubicon Cree ’s boycott of The Spirit Sings , a Shell sponsored exhibition at the Glenbow Museum in 1988, and the resulting Task Force Report on Museums and First Peoples in 1994; and The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s 2015 final report, with Calls to Action that specifically address museums and archives. Given that museums and their collection strategies are historically linked to patriarchal values and marked by androcentric bias, critical feminist museology has developed as
3565-499: Is not just a building that displays valued items even though communities often have a facility or defined space that serves as an information and activities center. For example, the Écomusée du fier monde in Montreal’s Centre-Sud has converted a large former public bath to hold its exhibitions and other cultural or community activities and to house ecomuseum offices. The second way ecomuseums differed from traditional museums
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3680-481: Is now conceived as “a site of activity and experience in and for an ever-expanding present.” Critical museology has emerged as a key discourse in contemporary museology. It is a broad field of study that engages critically with museums, calling into question the foundational assumptions of the field. This demonstrates critical museology’s close connection to New Museology, which also challenges foundational assumptions in museology. Critical museology may also extend beyond
3795-471: Is overlap between artist and activist interventions, specific activist groups such as the Guerrilla Girls have long been creating exhibitions and public advertisements – through the use of billboards, stickers, posters, and projections – to critique power dynamics related to sexism, racism, and class privilege in museums. There is also a tradition of activist interventions being used as responses to
3910-822: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Ecomuseum An ecomuseum
4025-708: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,
4140-411: Is that it has always involved some form of “radical reassessment of the roles of museums within society”. Critical theorists like Michel Foucault , Walter Benjamin , and Benedict Anderson also had a profound influence on late 20th and early 21st century museology. As other disciplines began to be critically reassessed, often adding the term “critical” to their new titles (i.e. critical race theory ),
4255-501: Is the artistic residency project of artist Nadia Granados who, with curator Carolina Chacón and a group of sex workers based in downtown Medellín, developed in 2017 the award-winning cabaret/performance Nadie sabe quién soy yo (No one knows who I am). From then on, the performers funded the group Las Guerreras del Centro , a collective to highlight the lives and stories of sex workers through artistic performances, knitting circles and other community actions. Nadie sabe quién soy yo
4370-632: Is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near the Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in
4485-534: The American Association of Museum’s Museum Work in the United States (1919). With the creation of the International Council of Museums (ICOM) in 1946, the study of museums gained increasing momentum and exposure, though at the time most of the scholarly focus was on operational museology, or museum practice. Beginning in the 1950s, new forms of museology were emerging as a way to revitalize
4600-562: The British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in
4715-657: The European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek
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4830-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as
4945-623: The Making Culture Lab at Simon Fraser University , the Curating and Public Scholarship Lab at Concordia University , and the Centre for Anthropological Research on Museums and Heritage (CARMAH) in Berlin, as well as courses like the International Field School in Critical Museology . In other contexts, historians have been at the forefront of interventions in critical museology. In North America, Australia, and New Zealand in particular, critical museology attempts to address
5060-505: The National Portrait Gallery in 2010. While most interventions are directed at museums from outside sources, museums also engage interventions as a way of performing self-critique. For example, in 2015 MoMA mounted a meta-intervention exhibit called Messing with MoMA: Critical Interventions at the Museum of Modern Art 1939 – Now . In a similar way, ethnographic exhibitions have been incorporating contemporary art as
5175-780: The United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to
5290-468: The genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in
5405-417: The syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However,
5520-566: The 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as
5635-409: The 20th century, and proposes a critical review of the region’s art history thereby inquiring about the role of collectors and the Museum in the construction of aesthetic paradigms. The gallery includes contemporary works in order to install a dialogue between the past and the present. [3] Additionally, the section of the permanent exhibition titled Galleries for decolonial dialogues: The persistence of
5750-544: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit
5865-549: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in
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#17327654684235980-593: The Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek
6095-736: The Museum (1992) at the Maryland Historical Society , Michael Nicholl Yahgulanaas ’ Meddling in the Museum (2007) at UBC’s Museum of Anthropology , or the Artists' Interventions at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford – while others have been done without explicit permission, like Andrea Fraser ’s Museum Highlights (1989) at the Philadelphia Museum of Art . One of the best known artist interventions in
6210-798: The Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, and the creation of the Reciprocal Research Network, which is an interactive online resource co-developed by the Musqueam Indian Band , the Sto:lo Nation Tribal Council , the U’mista Cultural Centre, and the Museum of Anthropology at UBC , to facilitate collaborative research and knowledge exchange between communities, scholars, and cultural institutions in Canada and internationally. While there
6325-429: The Smithsonian, Exhibiting Cultures (1988) and Museums and Communities (1990), that soon resulted in highly influential volumes of the same names that redefined museums studies. Scholars who are engaged in various “new” museological practices sometimes disagree about when this trend “officially” began, what exactly it encompasses, and whether or not it is an ongoing field of study. However, the common thread of New Museology
6440-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),
6555-479: The arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from
6670-720: The basis for museums. For instance, The Field Museum in Chicago grew out of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. In the European context, the first academic journal on museology was the Zeitschrift für Museologie und Antiquitätenkunde sowie verwandte Wissenschaften (Journal for museology and antiquarianism as well as related sciences, 1878–1885) founded and edited by Dr Johann Georg Theodor Graesse [ de ] (1814–1885), director of Dresden Porcelain Collection at
6785-403: The case included Luna's favorite books and music, his divorce papers, his university degree, photos, and other mementos, alongside labels describing the scars on his body and how he had acquired them. The work was critically acclaimed for its challenge of conventional narratives of Indigeneity and Indigenous experience. A few years later, two artists – Guillermo Gómez-Peña and Coco Fusco – developed
6900-690: The censorship of exhibited artworks. In 1989, after the Corcoran Gallery of Art cancelled The Perfect Moment , an exhibition of Robert Mapplethorpe’s explicit photography, protesters projected Mapplethorpe’s photos on the exterior of the museum. Similar protests occurred when David Wojnarowicz 's film A Fire in My Belly was removed from the Hide/Seek: Difference and Desire in American Portraiture exhibit at
7015-672: The conference. The meeting resulted in the founding of the International Movement for New Museology or MINOM (Movement International pour une NOuvelle Museologie). (See also New Museology . In subsequent years these gatherings were repeated in France, Norway, Portugal and Spain. In 1991, following a five-year educational program guided by the Smithsonian Institution’s Center for Museum Studies, along with René Rivard, Shayne del Cohen and other consultants,
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#17327654684237130-796: The country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine ,
7245-441: The dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before
7360-485: The day-to-day activity for ecomuseums. Heritage is very close to Place as a notion, including history of inhabitants and things, what is visible and what it is not, tangibles and intangibles, memories and future. Sustainable development is a central issue for ecomuseums and it implies also to increase the value of a place instead of diminishing it. Evidence from best practices identifies in this process two key elements: place-based development, as previously described, and
7475-528: The day-to-day operations of a museum, including its organizational and regulatory structures, institutional policies and protocols (procedural, ethical, etc.), collections management (including conservation and restoration ), and its exhibitions and programs. While there has been much scholarship around operational museology over the last 30 years, some scholars argue that it has lacked sustained analysis. Scholarship concerning operational museology has also overlapped with critical museology and other developments in
7590-471: The dogma displays an anachronistic array of works and documents in order to convey how enduring colonial dogmas determined the country’s cultural values and visual experiences during the 19th century. [4] The project of redeveloping the Museum’s permanent galleries is part of a larger institutional transformation that makes the Museum of Antioquia a great example of comprehensive critical museology practices. [5] Another example of this Museum’s critical approach
7705-528: The earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of
7820-411: The ecomuseum,” followed by Hugues de Varine’s editorial, “The word Ecomuseum and beyond." Hugues de Varine compared museums and ecomuseums in the following equations: Museum = building + collections + visitors and Ecomuseums = territory + heritage + community. This means that the three essential dimensions of a museum are radically transformed so that - the museum building is enlarged to include
7935-494: The educational role of museums. One attempt to re-envision museums’ role was the concept of ecomuseums , first proposed publicly at ICOM’s 9th International Conference in France (1971). Ecomuseums proliferated in Europe – and still exist around the world today – challenging traditional museums and dominant museum narratives, with an explicit focus on community control and the development of both heritage and sustainability. In 1988, Robert Lumley’s book The Museum Time Machine “expressed
8050-423: The emergence of early collectors and cabinets of curiosity in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. In particular, during The Age of Enlightenment anthropologists, naturalists, and hobbyist collectors encouraged the growth of public museums that displayed natural history and ethnographic objects and art in North America and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, European powers’ colonization of overseas lands
8165-412: The extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English
8280-508: The field. Operational museology has shifted in the late 20th and 21st century to position the museum as a central institution that serves the public by informing culture, history, and art while creating space for challenging conversations. Museums are thus perceived as cultural communicators that can reconstruct and reconnect cultural memory to the viewing public by collecting, preserving, documenting, and interpreting material culture. For example, many history museums engage with public memory from
8395-403: The first Forum of ecomuseums and community museums took place. The goals of the forum were to share experiences, questions and difficulties that ecomuseums face; to share their future projects; to envisage any prospect of exchange or collaboration with the visitors. During the Forum "it was proposed to establish an International Platform for exchanges and experience sharing", and "decided to create
8510-596: The first ecomuseum in the United States opened at the Ak-Chin Indian Community in Maricopa, Arizona. Called Him Dak (translated from O’odham as ‘Our Way’), the museum became a community education center that prompted the study of Ak-Chin prehistoric presence in the Sonora Desert and of their endeavors to develop in this arid environment. The ecomuseum phenomenon has grown dramatically over
8625-462: The focus on specific items and objects, performed by traditional museums. There are presently about 300 operating ecomuseums in the world; about 200 are in Europe , mainly in France , Italy , Spain , and Poland . In the 1960s and ‘70s, a new kind of museum, known as ecomuseums, emerged throughout Europe, predominately in France. Based on belief that museums and communities should be related to
8740-632: The general public. Museums typically served nationalist interests, and their primary purpose was often to celebrate the state, country, or colonial power. Though World’s Fairs , such as The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London or the Chicago World’s Fair , were temporary, they were some of the first examples of large-scale exhibition spaces dedicated to nationalist agendas; both Britain and America wanted to assert themselves as international leaders in science and industry. In some cases world's fairs became
8855-605: The growing disquiet about traditional museological presuppositions and operations”. The following year, Peter Vergo published his critically acclaimed edited collection The New Museology (1989/1997), a work that aimed to challenge the traditional or “old” field of museology, and was named one of the Paperbacks of the Year by The Sunday Times in Britain. Around the same time, Ivan Karp co-organized two ground-breaking conferences at
8970-400: The improvement of local networks, where ecomuseums have to play a key role as catalysts of social capital development. Agreement means a mutual consent, implying reciprocal commitments between local players. The Polish national meeting, once more, put forward the idea of “voluntary meeting of people”. In 2016 inside the 24th ICOM General Conference "Museums and cultural landscape" of Milan,
9085-449: The language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows
9200-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write
9315-586: The late 1980s. Projects involving collaboration and consultation with source communities have taken many forms, ranging from developing traveling exhibits, revising collection catalogues, to establishing community cultural centers and working with photographic collections together. In Canada, collaboration and consultation were first formally suggested by the 1994 Task Force Report on Museums and First Peoples, and are now seen by many museums as being an essential practice for any institution that holds collections belonging to Indigenous peoples . In North America, and around
9430-674: The late 20th and early 21st centuries. This has included reconstructing and analyzing those collection histories and the relationships that grew around them, as in the Pitt Rivers Museum's "Relational Museum" project. They have also led interdisciplinary working groups that developed new approaches to globalizing processes in critical museology, as foregrounded in Museum Frictions, a third innovative volume co-edited by Ivan Karp. Additionally, anthropologists have spearheaded recent methodological and pedagogical developments in critical museology including “curatorial dreaming”, curating labs like
9545-452: The many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is
9660-465: The morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of
9775-758: The museum to reflect Indigenous approaches to knowledge sharing. Examples of indigenizing museum practice include Art Gallery of Ontario 's 2016 appointing of Wanda Nanibush as the Curator of Canadian and Indigenous Art, Wood Land School’s takeover of the SBC Gallery of Contemporary Art in Montreal, the appointment of Aboriginal curators at the South Australia Museum, the Australian Museum, the National Museum of Australia, and
9890-596: The name “ecomuseums” (“ecomusée” in French). By adding "eco," meaning "home" in Greek, de Varine’s term eco-museum reflected the emerging concept of a “home-museum” or a “territory-museum.” In 1985, the entire issue of Museum International Quarterly, the UNESCO periodical, was devoted to the ecomuseum concept. Titled “Images of the Ecomuseum,” the journal opened with Georges Henri Rivière’s article, “Evolutive definition of
10005-538: The official periodical of the Deutscher Museumsbund e.V. (German Museums Association, since 1917). Museums Association , the first professional membership organization for those working in the museum field, was established in London in 1889. In 1901, they developed the Museums Journal , the first English periodical devoted entirely to the theory and practice of museums, which was followed by
10120-540: The people of 12 villages located in a remote area of south-eastern Quebec to create the Haute-Beauce Ecomuseum. In 1984, in Haute-Beauce ( Beauce, Quebec ), Rivard and Mayrand hosted the first international gathering of ecomuseologists. More than fifty ecomuseum curators and field-staff from France, Germany, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States participated in
10235-440: The philosophy of Georges Henri Rivière (1897–1985) , the French museologist who felt museums should reflect the natural heritage as well as the local culture and distinctiveness of place. Often created in response to external forces that held the potential for bringing radical change to an area, such as gentrification , an ecomuseum's overarching purpose was to develop a strong sense of common identity. Thus ecomuseums established
10350-434: The problematic colonial pasts of museums through the decolonization and Indigenization of museums. Once viewed as the formal process of handing over the instruments of government, decolonizing is now recognized – particularly in Canada – as a long-term process that involves dismantling the bureaucratic, cultural, linguistic, and psychological legacies of colonial power While there is no agreed upon end-goal of decolonization,
10465-485: The process has often been complicated by institutional, community, and government politics, and have had varying degrees of success. A newer concept, the Indigenization of museums, moves away from focusing exclusively on collaborative methods and towards employing Indigenous people to work in positions of power within museums as a means of opening up the museum to sustained Indigenous influences, and restructuring
10580-493: The process of decolonizing the museum is aimed at “assist[ing] communities in their efforts to address the legacies of historical unresolved grief by speaking the hard truths of colonialism and thereby creating spaces for healing and understanding”. Collaboration, consultation, and repatriation are key components of decolonizing museums. Australian museums have been leaders in developing repatriation processes, consultation, and collaboration with Indigenous communities, beginning in
10695-408: The provenance of their objects. Recent work has also analyzed exhibition design to show how the diverse media combined in exhibitions communicate and shape visitors' interpretations and values. While anthropologists and the field of anthropology were actively engaged in problematic collecting practices for two centuries, anthropologists have also been central to the emergence of critical museology in
10810-615: The reactions of the communities involved. In recent time particular significance is the rise in ecomuseology in India, China, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia, with significant increase in Italy, Poland, the Czech Republic and Turkey. Ecomuseums are an important medium through which a community can take control of its heritage and enable new approaches to make meaning out of conserving its local distinctiveness. An Ecomuseum
10925-591: The regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of
11040-422: The stereotypes such practices promoted in the past (e.g., the depiction of indigenous peoples as belonging to another time or somehow as primitive or extinguished cultures). Curatorial Dreaming was originally developed as a challenge to museum critics, who are typically not expected to provide practical solutions to the issues they identify in the exhibits they critique, to develop their own imagined exhibitions. It
11155-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of
11270-516: The support of Otto Glöckel of the Vienna City Council the Museum sought to make sociological and economic information accessible to the whole population regardless of their level of education. [2] Interventions in museums were first employed by artists like Marcel Duchamp , who were looking to challenge both established elite art traditions and the expectations of museum visitors. By the late 20th century, interventions had become
11385-545: The term “museum studies” to refer to that same field of study. When referring to the day-to-day operations of museums, other European languages typically use derivatives of the Greek “ museographia ” (French: muséographie , Spanish: museografía , German: Museographie , Italian: museografia , Portuguese: museografia ), while English speakers typically use the term “museum practice” or “operational museology” The development of museology in Europe coincided with
11500-546: The time. The journal was published twice a month from 1878 to 1885, and ended when the founding editor died. The Zeitschrift für Museologie was followed by the second German journal on museology, Museumskunde (since 1905), which was founded in Dresden by Dr Karl Koetschau [ de ] (1868–1949), director of the Dresden History Museum at the time. Since 1917, the journal Museumskunde has become
11615-413: The traditional museum to include cultural centres , heritage sites , memorials , art galleries , and so on. Given that museums are historically linked to colonialism , imperialism , and European missionary work, they have a morally and politically problematic past. While some of the objects museums hold were purchased – though not always fairly and often to the exclusive benefit of the collector –
11730-420: The transformations in the paradigms that have determined the messages and languages of museums in the past, and invites visitors to reflect on the diverse roles of museums through history. The display of the collections of the Museum of Antioquia (Medellín, Colombia) exemplifies this practice. The design of the gallery Historias para re-pensar (Histories to re-think) focuses on the 19th century and first half of
11845-421: The whole area where the community lives, - the ecomuseum collections include all of the cultural heritage found in the area, and - visitors are replaced by community members who become actors in the ecomuseum’s development. Thus, ecomuseums differ from mainstream museums in significant ways: First by creating a new sense of place. An ecomuseum consists of a specific geographic area, either rural or urban. It
11960-695: The whole of life, ecomuseums focused on integrating the family home with other aspects of a community. Similar beliefs during this period helped generate neighborhood museums in the United States and Mexico. Examples include the Anacostia Community Museum in Washington, D.C., and the Casa del Museo in suburban Mexico City which served as the prototype for hundreds of ‘museos comunitarios’ throughout Mexico. Although organized independently of each other, many of these museums were influenced by
12075-563: The world, some of the objects in those collections – particularly sacred objects or human remains – have been repatriated or returned to their communities of origin. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) formalized the process of repatriating Indigenous cultural objects in the United States. While Canada does not have a formal policy around repatriation, many museums have their own internal policies and many objects have been returned to Indigenous communities that way. Though repatriation policies are typically well intended,
12190-406: The years, with no one ecomuseum model but rather an entire philosophy that has been adapted and molded for use in a variety of situations. Many museologists have sought to define the distinctive features of ecomuseums, listing their characteristics. As many more ecomuseums are established across the world the idea has been growing and the changes in the approach towards the philosophy are reflected in
12305-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or
12420-540: Was accompanied by the development of the disciplines of natural history and ethnography, and the rise of private and institutional collection building. In many cases museums became the holding places for collections that were acquired through colonial conquests, which positioned museums as key institutions in Western European colonial projects . In the 19th century, European museology was focused on framing museums as institutions that would educate and “civilize”
12535-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe
12650-556: Was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and
12765-485: Was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with the epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in
12880-465: Was the beginning of a series of curatorial and educational collaborations between Las Guerreras del Centro and the Museum of Antioquia. Such collaborative projects are destigmatizing and empowering critical museology practices that generate new spaces for exchanges and social dialogues. These spaces emerge from the museum, forge links beyond museum walls, and drastically transform the museum’s relationship with its social environment. [6] Another example of
12995-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect
13110-637: Was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to
13225-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage
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