101-659: NOAA-10 , known as NOAA-G before launch, was an American weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for use in the National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service (NESDIS). It was the third of the Advanced TIROS-N series of satellites. The satellite design provided an economical and stable Sun-synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure
202-500: A field of view (FOV) 30 km in diameter at nadir , whereas the MSU had a FOV of 110 km in diameter. The HIRS/2 sampled 56 FOVs in each scan line about 2250 km wide, and the MSU sampled 11 FOVs along the swath with the same width. Each SSU scan line had 8 FOVs with a width of 1500 km. This experiment was also flown on other TIROS-N/NOAA series spacecraft. The Data Collection System (DCS) on NOAA-10, also known as Argos ,
303-589: A 48° viewing cone, viewed in the anti-Earth direction and measured protons in four energy ranges above 370 MeV and alpha particles in two energy ranges above 850 MeV/ nucleon . The Total Energy Detector (TED) measured electrons and protons between 300 eV and 20 keV. The Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) was designed to measure the energy exchange between the Earth - atmosphere system and space. The measurements of global, zonal, and regional radiation budgets on monthly time scales helped in climate prediction and in
404-565: A continuously rotating scan drum which scanned the FOV across track sequentially from horizon to horizon. Each channel made 74 radiometric measurements during each scan, and the FOV of each channel was 3 by 4.5° that covered about 40 km at the surface of Earth. The ERBE-S also viewed the Sun for calibration. The Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking ( SARSAT ) instruments had the capability of detecting and locating existing emergency transmitters in
505-516: A decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm. However a review of the literature found that a reliable subset of studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to only show a small effect on high-level decision making (for concentrations below 5000 ppm). Most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used. Similarly
606-446: A fixed structure. However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear. This counter-intuitive result
707-611: A glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide . Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released. At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide . Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide: Table of thermal and physical properties of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) at atmospheric pressure: Carbon dioxide
808-456: A manner independent of the environmental data. Data from the 121.5-MHz Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT), the 243-MHz Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRB), and experimental 406-MHz ELTs/EPIRBs were received by the Search and Rescue Repeater (SARR) and broadcast in real time on an L-band frequency (1544.5 MHz). Real-time data were monitored by local user terminals operated in
909-491: A mature forest will produce as much CO 2 from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants. Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable carbon sinks , helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO 2 in
1010-587: A more intense storm). Infrared pictures depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream which are valuable to the shipping industry. Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color-digitized techniques, the gray shaded thermal images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information. Each meteorological satellite
1111-777: A much better resolution than their geostationary counterparts due their closeness to the Earth. The United States has the NOAA series of polar orbiting meteorological satellites, presently NOAA-15, NOAA-18 and NOAA-19 ( POES ) and NOAA-20 and NOAA-21 ( JPSS ). Europe has the Metop -A, Metop -B and Metop -C satellites operated by EUMETSAT . Russia has the Meteor and RESURS series of satellites. China has FY -3A, 3B and 3C. India has polar orbiting satellites as well. The United States Department of Defense 's Meteorological Satellite ( DMSP ) can "see"
SECTION 10
#17327759776221212-428: A much larger denominator and a much smaller value than the true K a1 . The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution. At high pH, it dissociates significantly into the carbonate ion ( CO 2− 3 ): In organisms, carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase . In addition to altering its acidity,
1313-447: A number of changes over its predecessors in support of its mission to gather data for weather forecasting and climate monitoring. The MTG satellites are three-axis stabilised rather than spin stabilised, giving greater flexibility in satellite and instrument design. The MTG system features separate Imager and Sounder satellite models that share the same satellite bus, with a baseline of three satellites - two Imagers and one Sounder - forming
1414-723: A scatterometer and a radio-occultation instrument. The satellite service module is based on the SPOT-5 bus, while the payload suite is a combination of new and heritage instruments from both Europe and the US under the Initial Joint Polar System agreement between EUMETSAT and NOAA. A second generation of Metop satellites ( MetOp-SG ) is in advanced development with launch of the first satellite foreseen in 2025. As with MTG, Metop-SG will launch on Ariane-6 and comprise two satellite models to be operated in pairs in replacement of
1515-524: A second imager satellite will operate from 9.5-deg East to perform a Rapid Scanning mission over Europe. MTG continues Meteosat support to the ARGOS and Search and Rescue missions. MTG-I1 launched in one of the last Ariane-5 launches, with the subsequent satellites planned to launch in Ariane-6 when it enters service. In 2006, the first European low-Earth orbit operational meteorological satellite, Metop -A
1616-485: A spatial resolution of 1.1 km, and the two IR-window channels had a thermal resolution of 0.12 Kelvin at 300 Kelvin. The AVHRR was capable of operating in both real-time or recorded modes. Real-time or direct readout data were transmitted to ground stations both at low (4 km) resolution via automatic picture transmission (APT) and at high (1 km) resolution via high-resolution picture transmission (HRPT). Data recorded on board were available for processing in
1717-416: A study on the effects of the concentration of CO 2 in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of CO 2 declined to safe levels (0.2%). Poor ventilation
1818-506: A trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. Infrared satellite imagery can be used effectively for tropical cyclones with a visible eye pattern, using the Dvorak technique , where the difference between the temperature of the warm eye and the surrounding cold cloud tops can be used to determine its intensity (colder cloud tops generally indicate
1919-467: A typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply bonded functional groups such as carbonyls . Since it is centrosymmetric, the molecule has no electric dipole moment . As a linear triatomic molecule, CO 2 has four vibrational modes as shown in the diagram. In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule. There are two bending modes, which are degenerate , meaning that they have
2020-462: A valuable asset in such situations. Nighttime photos also show the burn-off in gas and oil fields. Atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles have been taken by weather satellites since 1969. Not all weather satellites are direct imagers . Some satellites are sounders that take measurements of a single pixel at a time. They have no horizontal spatial resolution but often are capable or resolving vertical atmospheric layers . Soundings along
2121-485: A waste product. In turn, oxygen is consumed and CO 2 is released as waste by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize organic compounds to produce energy by respiration . CO 2 is released from organic materials when they decay or combust, such as in forest fires. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate ( HCO − 3 ), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric CO 2 levels increase. Carbon dioxide
SECTION 20
#17327759776222222-469: Is Emiliania huxleyi whose calcite scales have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as limestone , where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales. Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm CO 2 when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated CO 2 levels cause increased growth reflected in
2323-419: Is 304.128(15) K (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa (72.808(30) atm). Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-like solid. This form of glass, called carbonia , is produced by supercooling heated CO 2 at extreme pressures (40–48 GPa , or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil . This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in
2424-569: Is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess CO 2 emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed by land and ocean carbon sinks . These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and wildfires result in the CO 2 being released back into the atmosphere. CO 2 is eventually sequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like coal , petroleum and natural gas . Nearly all CO2 produced by humans goes into
2525-718: Is a type of Earth observation satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth. Satellites can be polar orbiting (covering the entire Earth asynchronously), or geostationary (hovering over the same spot on the equator ). While primarily used to detect the development and movement of storm systems and other cloud patterns, meteorological satellites can also detect other phenomena such as city lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras , sand and dust storms , snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents , and energy flows. Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites. Weather satellite images helped in monitoring
2626-415: Is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism . This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates , the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians ) or the gills (e.g., fish ), from where it dissolves in
2727-518: Is classified in accordance with ITU Radio Regulations (article 1) as follows: Fixed service (article 1.20) The allocation of radio frequencies is provided according to Article 5 of the ITU Radio Regulations (edition 2012). In order to improve harmonisation in spectrum utilisation, the majority of service-allocations stipulated in this document were incorporated in national Tables of Frequency Allocations and Utilisations which
2828-402: Is commercially used in its solid form, commonly known as " dry ice ". The solid-to-gas phase transition occurs at 194.7 Kelvin and is called sublimation . The symmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear and centrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry. The length of the carbon–oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3 pm , noticeably shorter than the roughly 140 pm length of
2929-446: Is designed to use one of two different classes of orbit: geostationary and polar orbiting . Geostationary weather satellites orbit the Earth above the equator at altitudes of 35,880 km (22,300 miles). Because of this orbit , they remain stationary with respect to the rotating Earth and thus can record or transmit images of the entire hemisphere below continuously with their visible-light and infrared sensors. The news media use
3030-575: Is odorless. As the source of carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric CO 2 is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation , acting as a greenhouse gas . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater , lakes , ice caps , and seawater . It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421 parts per million (ppm) , or about 0.042% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.028%. Burning fossil fuels
3131-632: Is one of the main causes of excessive CO 2 concentrations in closed spaces, leading to poor indoor air quality . Carbon dioxide differential above outdoor concentrations at steady state conditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system operation are sufficiently long that CO 2 concentration has stabilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates per person. Higher CO 2 concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation. ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions. Thus if
NOAA-10 - Misplaced Pages Continue
3232-410: Is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction: The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode . The nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process. Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants and cyanobacteria ) use the energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple sugars from CO 2 absorbed from
3333-405: Is produced as a by-product. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase , commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from CO 2 and ribulose bisphosphate , as shown in the diagram at left. RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth. Phototrophs use
3434-472: Is the true first acid dissociation constant, defined as where the denominator includes only covalently bound H 2 CO 3 and does not include hydrated CO 2 (aq). The much smaller and often-quoted value near 4.16 × 10 (or pK a1 = 6.38) is an apparent value calculated on the (incorrect) assumption that all dissolved CO 2 is present as carbonic acid, so that Since most of the dissolved CO 2 remains as CO 2 molecules, K a1 (apparent) has
3535-503: Is the main cause of these increased CO 2 concentrations, which are the primary cause of climate change . Its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological features. Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis , which produces oxygen as
3636-419: Is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motion volume element vanishes for linear geometries. This is so for all molecules except diatomic molecules . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it reversibly forms H 2 CO 3 (carbonic acid), which is a weak acid , because its ionization in water is incomplete. The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is, at 25 °C: Hence,
3737-465: Is used in CO 2 scrubbers and has been suggested as a possible starting point for carbon capture and storage by amine gas treating . Only very strong nucleophiles, like the carbanions provided by Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with CO 2 to give carboxylates : In metal carbon dioxide complexes , CO 2 serves as a ligand , which can facilitate the conversion of CO 2 to other chemicals. The reduction of CO 2 to CO
3838-411: Is what has given humanity the capability to make accurate and preemptive space weather forecasts since the late 2010s. In Europe, the first Meteosat geostationary operational meteorological satellite, Meteosat-1, was launched in 1977 on a Delta launch vehicle. The satellite was a spin-stabilised cylindrical design, 2.1 m in diameter and 3.2 m tall, rotating at approx. 100 rpm and carrying
3939-459: Is with-in the responsibility of the appropriate national administration. The allocation might be primary, secondary, exclusive, and shared. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CO 2 . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it
4040-550: The COSPAS-SARSAT Search and Rescue (SAR) and ARGOS Data Collection Platform (DCP) missions. SEVIRI provided an increased number of spectral channels over MVIRI and imaged the full-Earth disc at double the rate. Meteosat-9 was launched to complement Meteosat-8 in 2005, with the second pair consisting of Meteosat-10 and Meteosat-11 launched in 2012 and 2015, respectively. The Meteosat Third Generation (MTG) programme launched its first satellite in 2022, and featured
4141-592: The European Commission 's Copernicus programme and fulfils the Sentinel-4 mission to monitor air quality, trace gases and aerosols over Europe hourly at high spatial resolution. Two MTG satellites - one Imager and one Sounder - will operate in close proximity from the 0-deg geostationary location over western Africa to observe the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while
NOAA-10 - Misplaced Pages Continue
4242-995: The Meteosat Visible and Infrared Imager (MVIRI) instrument. Successive Meteosat first generation satellites were launched, on European Ariane-4 launchers from Kourou in French Guyana, up to and including Meteosat-7 which acquired data from 1997 until 2017, operated initially by the European Space Agency and later by the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). Japan has launched nine Himawari satellites beginning in 1977. Starting in 1988 China has launched twenty-one Fengyun satellites. The Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) satellites - also spin stabilised although physically larger and twice
4343-429: The U.S. Air Force , and it was capable of maintaining an Earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second. Primary sensors included: 1) an Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR/2) for global cloud cover observations, 2) a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) suite for atmospheric temperature and water profiling. The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems:
4444-564: The United States , Canada , and France . The 406-MHz data were also processed by the Search and Rescue Processor (SARP) and retransmitted in real time and stored on the spacecraft for later transmittal to the CDA stations in Alaska and Virginia , thus providing full global coverage. The distress signals were forwarded to Mission Control Centers located in each country for subsequent relay to
4545-500: The atmosphere of Earth , its surface and cloud cover , and the near-space environment . NOAA-10 was launched on an Atlas E launch vehicle on 17 September 1986 at 15:52 UTC from Vandenberg Air Force Base at Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 3 (SLW-3W), California , United States . The NOAA-10 satellite had a mass of 1,420 kg (3,130 lb). The satellite was based upon the DMSP Block 5D satellite bus developed for
4646-532: The solar radiation balance of the tropics. Other dust storms in Asia and mainland China are common and easy to spot and monitor, with recent examples of dust moving across the Pacific Ocean and reaching North America. In remote areas of the world with few local observers, fires could rage out of control for days or even weeks and consume huge areas before authorities are alerted. Weather satellites can be
4747-432: The upper atmosphere . The experiment package consisted of three detector systems and a data processing unit. The Medium Energy Proton and Electron Detector (MEPED) measured protons in five energy ranges from 30 keV to >2.5 MeV; electrons above 30, 100, and 300 keV; protons and electrons (inseparable) above 6 MeV; and omni-directional protons above 16, 36, and 80 MeV. The High-Energy Proton Alpha Telescope (HEPAT), which had
4848-444: The watersheds of the western United States. This information is gleaned from existing satellites of all agencies of the U.S. government (in addition to local, on-the-ground measurements). Ice floes, packs, and bergs can also be located and tracked from weather spacecraft. Even pollution whether it is nature-made or human-made can be pinpointed. The visual and infrared photos show effects of pollution from their respective areas over
4949-578: The 0.70-μm visible region . The SSU instrument was provided by the British Meteorological Office ( United Kingdom ). The SSU operated at three 15.0-μm channels using selective absorption, passing the incoming radiation through three pressure-modulated cells containing CO. The MSU had one channel in the 50.31-GHz window region and three channels in the 55-GHz oxygen band (53.73, 54.96, and 57.95 GHz) to obtain temperature profiles which were free of cloud interference. The HIRS/2 had
5050-439: The 13.7- and 13.4-μm CO 2 /H 2 O bands; channel 8, the 11.1-μm window region; channel 9, the 9.7-μm ozone band; channels 10, 11, and 12, the 6-μm water vapor bands (8.3, 7.3, and 6.7 μm); channels 13 and 14, the 4.57-μm and 4.52-μm N 2 O bands; channels 15 and 16, the 4.46-μm and 4.40-μm CO 2 /N 2 O bands; channel 17, the 4.24-μm CO 2 band; channels 18 and 19, the 4.0-μm and 3.7-μm window bands; and channel 20,
5151-537: The 1962 Defense Satellite Applications Program (DSAP) and the 1964 Soviet Meteor series . TIROS paved the way for the Nimbus program , whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then. Beginning with the Nimbus 3 satellite in 1969, temperature information through the tropospheric column began to be retrieved by satellites from
SECTION 50
#17327759776225252-446: The Earth at a typical altitude of 850 km (530 miles) in a north to south (or vice versa) path, passing over the poles in their continuous flight. Polar orbiting weather satellites are in sun-synchronous orbits , which means they are able to observe any place on Earth and will view every location twice each day with the same general lighting conditions due to the near-constant local solar time . Polar orbiting weather satellites offer
5353-521: The Earth from limb to limb, approximately 135°; two medium FOV sensors viewed a 10° region. The fifth sensor was a solar monitor that measured the total radiation from the Sun . Of the four Earth-viewing sensors, one wide and one medium FOV sensors made total radiation measurements; the other two measured reflected solar radiation in the shortwave spectral band between 0.2 and 5 micrometers by using Suprasil-W filters . The Earth-emitted longwave radiation component
5454-761: The High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 (HIRS/2), the Stratospheric Sounding Unit (SSU), and the Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU). 3) an Earth radiation budget experiment (ERBE), and 4) a Solar Backscattered UltraViolet radiometer ( SBUV/2 ). The secondary experiment was a Data Collection System (DCS). A Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking System ( SARSAT ) system was also carried on NOAA-10. A Space Environment Monitor (SEM) measuring proton and electron fluxes. The AVHRR/2
5555-835: The Indian Ocean. The Japanese have the MTSAT -2 located over the mid Pacific at 145°E and the Himawari 8 at 140°E. The Europeans have four in operation, Meteosat -8 (3.5°W) and Meteosat-9 (0°) over the Atlantic Ocean and have Meteosat-6 (63°E) and Meteosat-7 (57.5°E) over the Indian Ocean. China currently has four Fengyun (风云) geostationary satellites (FY-2E at 86.5°E, FY-2F at 123.5°E, FY-2G at 105°E and FY-4A at 104.5 °E) operated. India also operates geostationary satellites called INSAT which carry instruments for meteorological purposes. Polar orbiting weather satellites circle
5656-652: The NOAA central computer facility. They included global area coverage (GAC) data, with a resolution of 4 km, and local area coverage (LAC), that contained data from selected portions of each orbit with a 1-km resolution. Identical experiments were flown on other spacecraft in the TIROS-N/NOAA series. The TOVS instrument suite consisted of three instruments: the High-resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder modification 2 (HIRS/2),
5757-545: The Stratospheric Sounding Unit (SSU), and the Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU). All three instruments were designed to determine radiances needed to calculate temperature and humidity profiles of the atmosphere from the surface to the stratosphere (approximately 1 mb ). The HIRS/2 instrument had 20 channels in the following spectral intervals: channels 1 through 5, the 15-micrometer (μm) CO 2 bands (15.0, 14.7, 14.5, 14.2, and 14.0 μm); channels 6 and 7,
5858-529: The U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch. As early as 1946, the idea of cameras in orbit to observe the weather was being developed. This was due to sparse data observation coverage and the expense of using cloud cameras on rockets. By 1958, the early prototypes for TIROS and Vanguard (developed by the Army Signal Corps ) were created. The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2 ,
5959-439: The air and water: Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor. At standard temperature and pressure , the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m , about 1.53 times that of air . Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm ). At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa),
6060-577: The appropriate Rescue Coordination Center. The SBUV/2 was designed to map total ozone concentrations on a global scale, and to provide the vertical distribution of ozone in the atmosphere of Earth . The instrument design was based upon the technology developed for the SBUV/TOMS flown on Nimbus 7 . The SBUV/2 instrument measured backscattered solar radiation in an 11.3° field of view in the nadir direction at 12 discrete, 1.1-nm wide, wavelength bands between 252.0 and 339.8 nm. The solar irradiance
6161-430: The atmosphere. Less than 1% of CO2 produced annually is put to commercial use, mostly in the fertilizer industry and in the oil and gas industry for enhanced oil recovery . Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses. Carbon dioxide cannot be liquefied at atmospheric pressure. Low-temperature carbon dioxide
SECTION 60
#17327759776226262-591: The best of all weather vehicles with its ability to detect objects almost as 'small' as a huge oil tanker . In addition, of all the weather satellites in orbit, only DMSP can "see" at night in the visual. Some of the most spectacular photos have been recorded by the night visual sensor; city lights, volcanoes , fires, lightning, meteors , oil field burn-offs, as well as the Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis have been captured by this 720 kilometres (450 mi) high space vehicle's low moonlight sensor. At
6363-533: The capability of acquiring data from up to 2000 platforms per day. Identical experiments are flown on other spacecraft in the TIROS-N/NOAA series. Processing and dissemination of data were handled by CNES in Toulouse , France . The SEM was an extension of the solar proton monitoring experiment flown on the ITOS spacecraft series. The object was to measure proton flux, electron flux density, and energy spectrum in
6464-869: The condition. There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous CO 2 exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%. Occupational CO 2 exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period. At this CO 2 concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption. Studies in animals at 0.5% CO 2 have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure. A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000 ppm) CO 2 likely due to CO 2 induced increases in cerebral blood flow. Another study observed
6565-517: The degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm (wavelength 15.0 μm). The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected in Raman spectroscopy at 1388 cm (wavelength 7.20 μm), with a Fermi resonance doublet at 1285 cm . In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep
6666-526: The development of statistical relationships between regional weather and radiation budget anomalies. The ERBE consisted of two instrument packages: the Non-Scanner (ERBE-NS) instrument and the Scanner (ERBS-S) instrument. The ERBE-NS instrument had five sensors, each using cavity radiometer detectors. Four of them were primarily Earth-viewing: two wide field of view (FOV) sensors viewed the entire disk of
6767-566: The dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals located therein to be suffocated. Carrion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed. Children have been killed in the same way near the city of Goma by CO 2 emissions from the nearby volcano Mount Nyiragongo . The Swahili term for this phenomenon is mazuku . Adaptation to increased concentrations of CO 2 occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance
6868-578: The eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific Ocean, which led to significant improvements to weather forecasts . The ESSA and NOAA polar orbiting satellites followed suit from the late 1960s onward. Geostationary satellites followed, beginning with the ATS and SMS series in the late 1960s and early 1970s, then continuing with the GOES series from the 1970s onward. Polar orbiting satellites such as QuikScat and TRMM began to relay wind information near
6969-541: The effects of blood acidification ( acidosis ). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine ) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days. Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels. Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis , adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse
7070-551: The electrical conductivity of fully deionized water without CO 2 saturation is comparably low in relation to these data. CO 2 is a potent electrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable to benzaldehyde or strongly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds . However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with CO 2 are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible. The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide with amines to make carbamates
7171-705: The entire earth. Aircraft and rocket pollution, as well as condensation trails , can also be spotted. The ocean current and low level wind information gleaned from the space photos can help predict oceanic oil spill coverage and movement. Almost every summer, sand and dust from the Sahara Desert in Africa drifts across the equatorial regions of the Atlantic Ocean. GOES-EAST photos enable meteorologists to observe, track and forecast this sand cloud. In addition to reducing visibilities and causing respiratory problems, sand clouds suppress hurricane formation by modifying
7272-469: The gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above this temperature. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice . Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm); the triple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram). The critical point
7373-505: The geostationary photos in their daily weather presentation as single images or made into movie loops. These are also available on the city forecast pages of www.noaa.gov (example Dallas, TX). Several geostationary meteorological spacecraft are in operation. The United States' GOES series has three in operation: GOES-15 , GOES-16 and GOES-17 . GOES-16 and-17 remain stationary over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, respectively. GOES-15
7474-601: The harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated CO 2 in FACE experiments. Increased atmospheric CO 2 concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency . Studies using FACE have shown that CO 2 enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants. This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain
7575-444: The majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid, but remains as CO 2 molecules, not affecting the pH. The relative concentrations of CO 2 , H 2 CO 3 , and the deprotonated forms HCO − 3 ( bicarbonate ) and CO 2− 3 ( carbonate ) depend on the pH . As shown in a Bjerrum plot , in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming
7676-666: The mass of the first generation - were developed by ESA with European industry and in cooperation with EUMETSAT who then operate the satellites from their headquarters in Darmstadt, Germany with this same approach followed for all subsequent European meteorological satellites. Meteosat-8 , the first MSG satellite, was launched in 2002 on an Ariane-5 launcher, carrying the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) and Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget (GERB) instruments, along with payloads to support
7777-510: The most dramatic photos showed the 600 Kuwaiti oil fires that the fleeing Army of Iraq started on February 23, 1991. The night photos showed huge flashes, far outstripping the glow of large populated areas. The fires consumed huge quantities of oil; the last was doused on November 6, 1991. Snowfield monitoring, especially in the Sierra Nevada , can be helpful to the hydrologist keeping track of available snowpack for runoff vital to
7878-443: The most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater. In very alkaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter. Being diprotic , carbonic acid has two acid dissociation constants , the first one for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion ( HCO − 3 ): This
7979-484: The ocean's surface starting in the late 1970s, with microwave imagery which resembled radar displays, which significantly improved the diagnoses of tropical cyclone strength, intensification, and location during the 2000s and 2010s. The DSCOVR satellite, owned by NOAA, was launched in 2015 and became the first deep space satellite that can observe and predict space weather. It can detect potentially dangerous weather such as solar wind and geomagnetic storms . This
8080-547: The operational configuration. The imager satellites carry the Flexible Combined Imager (FCI), succeeding MVIRI and SEVIRI to give even greater resolution and spectral coverage, scanning the full Earth disc every ten minutes, as well as a new Lightning Imager (LI) payload. The sounder satellites carry the Infrared Sounder (IRS) and Ultra-violet Visible Near-infrared (UVN) instruments. UVN is part of
8181-495: The presence of carbon dioxide in water also affects its electrical properties. When carbon dioxide dissolves in desalinated water, the electrical conductivity increases significantly from below 1 μS/cm to nearly 30 μS/cm. When heated, the water begins to gradually lose the conductivity induced by the presence of C O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {CO_{2}} } , especially noticeable as temperatures exceed 30 °C. The temperature dependence of
8282-499: The presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour. Concentrations of more than 10% may cause convulsions, coma, and death. CO 2 levels of more than 30% act rapidly leading to loss of consciousness in seconds. Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without
8383-496: The products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides , nucleic acids , and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales. A globally significant species of coccolithophore
8484-420: The same amount of protein. The concentration of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and flavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of CO 2 . Plants also emit CO 2 during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis , are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of CO 2 each year,
8585-411: The same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule. When a molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes. Some of the vibrational modes are observed in the infrared (IR) spectrum : the antisymmetric stretching mode at wavenumber 2349 cm (wavelength 4.25 μm) and
8686-424: The same time, energy use and city growth can be monitored since both major and even minor cities, as well as highway lights, are conspicuous. This informs astronomers of light pollution . The New York City Blackout of 1977 was captured by one of the night orbiter DMSP space vehicles. In addition to monitoring city lights, these photos are a life saving asset in the detection and monitoring of fires. Not only do
8787-606: The satellite ground track can still be gridded later to form maps . According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a meteorological-satellite service (also: meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service ) is – according to Article 1.52 of the ITU Radio Regulations (RR) – defined as « An earth exploration-satellite service for meteorological purposes.» This radiocommunication service
8888-429: The satellites see the fires visually day and night, but the thermal and infrared scanners on board these weather satellites detect potential fire sources below the surface of the Earth where smoldering occurs. Once the fire is detected, the same weather satellites provide vital information about wind that could fan or spread the fires. These same cloud photos from space tell the firefighter when it will rain. Some of
8989-785: The single first generation satellites to continue the EPS mission. Observation is typically made via different 'channels' of the electromagnetic spectrum , in particular, the visible and infrared portions. Some of these channels include: Visible-light images from weather satellites during local daylight hours are easy to interpret even by the average person, clouds, cloud systems such as fronts and tropical storms, lakes, forests, mountains, snow ice, fires, and pollution such as smoke, smog, dust and haze are readily apparent. Even wind can be determined by cloud patterns, alignments and movement from successive photos. The thermal or infrared images recorded by sensors called scanning radiometers enable
9090-472: The spacecraft and retransmitted when the spacecraft comes within range of a Command and Data Acquisition (CDA) station. For free-moving balloons, the Doppler frequency shift of the transmitted signal is observed to calculate the location of the balloons. The DCS is expected, for a moving sensor platform, to have a location accuracy of 5 to 8 km, and a velocity accuracy of 1.0 to 1.6 m/s. This system has
9191-491: The surface of Earth brightness at 380 nm. The CCR field of view was 11.3°. The ERBE-S scanner instrument malfunctioned on 22 May 1989, after an operational life of 2.7 years. The ERBE-NS nonscanner instrument is operational, but data are not being telemetered to a ground station. The last day of Earth-viewing data from the nonscanner was 14 November 1994. The last contact occurred on 30 August 2001. Weather satellite A weather satellite or meteorological satellite
9292-535: The upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (412 ppm), depending on the location. In humans, exposure to CO 2 at concentrations greater than 5% causes the development of hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis . Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in
9393-399: The volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna . Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored. El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images. The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data. Collectively, weather satellites flown by
9494-546: The water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration. Carbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and cyanobacteria into energy-rich organic molecules such as glucose , thus creating their own food by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars from which other organic compounds can be constructed, and oxygen
9595-636: Was a four-channel scanning radiometer capable of providing global daytime and nighttime sea-surface temperature and information about ice, snow, and clouds. These data were obtained on a daily basis for use in weather analysis and forecasting. The multispectral radiometer operated in the scanning mode and measured emitted and reflected radiation in the following spectral intervals: channel 1 ( visible ), 0.55 to 0.90 micrometer (μm); channel 2 ( near infrared ), 0.725 μm to detector cutoff around 1.1 μm; channel 3 (IR window), 3.55 to 3.93 μm; and channel 4 (IR window), 10.5 to 11.5 μm. All four channels had
9696-565: Was designed and built in France, is designed to meet the meteorological data needs of the United States and to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP). The system receives low-duty-cycle transmissions of meteorological observations from free-floating balloons, ocean buoys, other satellites, and fixed ground-based sensor platforms distributed around the globe. These observations are organized on board
9797-499: Was determined at the same 12 wavelength bands by deploying a diffuser which reflected sunlight into the instrument's field of view. The SBUV/2 also measured the solar irradiance or the atmospheric radiance with a continuous spectral scan from 160 to 400 nm in increments of 0.148 nm. The SBUV/2 had another narrowband filter photometer channel, called the Cloud Cover Radiometer (CCR), which continuously measured
9898-521: Was determined by subtracting the shortwave measurement from the total measurement. The ERBE-S instrument was a scanning radiometer which contained three narrow FOV channels. One channel measured reflected solar radiation in the shortwave spectral interval between 0.2 and 5 micrometers (μm). Another channel measured Earth-emitted radiation in the longwave spectral region from 5 to 50 μm. The third channel measured total radiation with wavelength between 0.2 and 50 μm. All three channels were located within
9999-595: Was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit at 817 km altitude by a Soyuz launcher from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. This operational satellite - which forms the space segment of the EUMETSAT Polar System (EPS) - built on the heritage from ESA's ERS and Envisat experimental missions, and was followed at six-year intervals by Metop-B and Metop-C - the latter launched from French Guyana in a "Europeanised" Soyuz . Each carry thirteen different passive and active instruments ranging in design from imagers and sounders to
10100-550: Was launched on February 17, 1959. It was designed to measure cloud cover and resistance, but a poor axis of rotation and its elliptical orbit kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data. The Explorer 6 and Explorer 7 satellites also contained weather-related experiments. The first weather satellite to be considered a success was TIROS-1 , launched by NASA on April 1, 1960. TIROS operated for 78 days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard 2. Other early weather satellite programs include
10201-534: Was retired in early July 2019. The satellite GOES 13 that was previously owned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) was transferred to the U.S. Space Force in 2019 and renamed the EWS-G1; becoming the first geostationary weather satellite to be owned and operated by the U.S. Department of Defense. Russia 's new-generation weather satellite Elektro-L No.1 operates at 76°E over
#621378