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80-700: The Nome Cult Trail also known as the Concow (or Koncow) Trail of Tears refers to the state-sanctioned forced removal of the Northern Californian Concow Maidu people during the 1860s to Round Valley Reservation . This historic trail is located in present-day Mendocino National Forest which follows Round Valley Road , through Rocky Ridge and the Sacramento Valley . On August 28, 1863, the Konkow Maidu were ordered by

160-456: A certificate of custody. 4. Required proper treatment of those in custody, with fines of not less than 10 dollars for inhumane treatment. 6. Complaints may be made before a Justice of the Peace, by white persons or Indians: but in no case shall a white man be convicted on any offence upon the testimony of an Indian. 9. If any tribe or village of Indians refuse or neglect to obey the laws set by

240-480: A choice of where or when they worked. Under this system, white wageworkers held the right to quit their job and had protection against corporal punishment in the workplace. In contrast, unfree workers of color could neither quit their job nor were offered protection against violent reprimand, most commonly in the form of whipping. The Nome Cult Farm was under-resourced, with food shortages and lack of clothing leading to increased spread of illness and high death rates. As

320-415: A common reservation experience and history. Between July, 1856, when Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Thomas J. Henley , requested official designation of the valley as Nome Cult farm, and the granting of his request in 1858, Round Valley slowly filled with farms and ranches despite its reservation status. Relations between the various Indian groups, settlers and white employees of the reservation reached

400-623: A crucial role in enabling the California genocide , in which thousands of Native Californians were killed or enslaved by white settlers during the California gold rush . Burnett, who signed the bill into law, explained in 1851 "[t]hat a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected". At the time of the legislation's passage, Native Californians were ineligible to become citizens, vote, or testify in court. The act facilitated

480-514: A fine not exceeding two hundred dollars, at the discretion of the Court or jury. 20. Any Indian found loitering and strolling about, or frequenting public places where liquors are sold, begging, or leading an immoral or profligate course of life, shall be liable to be arrested on the complaint of any reasonable citizen of the county, authorizing and requiring the officer having him in charge or custody, to hire out such vagrant within twenty-four hours to

560-426: A generation of children and adults from their native culture, families, and languages. Additionally, it indentured Indigenous members to white people in the area. The provisions of this act of important note are as follows: 3. Employers are granted the right to obtain children and keep them until they reach 18 years old for men, and 15 years old for women. Consent was required from a parent or friend in order to gain

640-539: A lack of water, resulting in poor living conditions. Eventually, federal ownership was relinquished and once again those native to the land were forced to move. In 1870, oversight of the reserves was turned over to the Quaker Church, in addition to the Methodists , Baptists , and other churches, which were generally intolerant of Native American's traditional beliefs. Turning reservations into missions began

720-517: A meadow some five miles from Chico, and my brave and my mi-hi-nas [women] went out and worked for the Ad-sals for a whole year. But many of them became very sick with chills [probably malaria as well as the flu] and when the time came for us to go back to Nome- Cult they were so weak that they could scarcely walk, and many died on the trail, lying down sick and dying all the way from Chico to this place [Nome Cult Reservation’. And when we got here there

800-573: A state of extreme hostility. As part of the California genocide , bloodshed became a frequent occurrence as settlers massacred Native Americans, some at the behest of future first Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court Serranus Clinton Hastings between the years 1850–70. They killed at least 283 men, women and children, the most deadly of 24 known state militia campaigns. The perpetrators of these massacres were paid or reimbursed for expenses by

880-876: A state-sanctioned system of unfree labor. In 1850, the California state legislature passed the Act for the Government and Protection of the Indians which established vagrancy clauses for Native Californians. Under these vagrancy clauses, Native Americans were hired out to white ranchers and farmers in a system of coerced labor. The Act also allowed white settlers to post bail for Native Californians accused of misdemeanors and compel them to work to pay off their bond. The law also permitted white settlers to hold Indigenous children as indentured servants with parental consent. Historian William Bauer states “[a]t its worst, this law created

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960-601: A system of Indian slavery in California.” In June 1856, under the orders of Simmon Storms, an immigrant rancher and worker at the Nome Lackee Reservation near modern-day Red Bluff, and Weimer, a Grass Valley Nisenan leader, traveled from the Nome Lackee Reservation to Red Valley, California. Storms named Round Valley “Nome Cult” as a mispronunciation of the Nomlaki phrase nome kechl meaning “western tribe” or “western language.” Storms and his party established

1040-485: Is hosted annually by members of the Round Valley Reservation to commemorate the trek their ancestors were forced to make from Chico to Round Valley. This walk was established in 1996 and as scholars Dr. Damon Akins and Dr. William Bauer state, the walk "has been instrumental in the process by which Round Valley Indians heal historical trauma.” A small 4-mile (6.4 km) section exists and is part of

1120-508: The Act for the Government and Protection of the Indians (1850) which expanded the permitted length of indentured servitude, revoked the requirement for parental consent, and permitted the indenture of “orphaned” children. During this time, the Nome Cult Farm was renamed Round Valley Reservation. Many Indigenous families fled to the Round Valley Reservation in search of protection from the state militia and many others were forced onto

1200-513: The Coast Range . The next day the group marched another six miles onward into the mountains, camping at Log Springs. On 16 September their only wagon was abandoned at Log Springs. The group continued on foot and many struggled to continue the trip during the ten mile ascent into the mountains to Log Cabin, now known as "Government Camp" camping area. Continuing on, the Maidu were forced to climb

1280-657: The Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs . The Indians of Round Valley jointly elected a tribal council and wrote a constitution both of which still function. Along with this alteration in tribal management, a whole range of new regulations intended to halt the loss of land from the Indian Community was also instituted. The IRA repealed the Allotment Act and Indians on the Reservation were deprived of

1360-756: The Four Reservations Act of 1864. Life on the Round Valley Reservation has since been affected by much government legislation. Two of the most significant impacts were from the Dawes Act of 1887, also known as the Allotment Act, and the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, known as the IRA. The Allotment Act caused the Reservation to be subdivided in 1894 into five and 10-acre (40,000 m ) plots which were distributed to families. By assigning specific pieces of land to individuals,

1440-564: The Justices of the Peace , the Justice of the Peace may punish the guilty chiefs or principal men by reprimand or fine, or otherwise reasonably chastise them. 13. Justices may require the chiefs and influential men of any village to apprehend and bring before them or him any Indian charged or suspected of an offence. 14. When an Indian is convicted of an offence before a Justice of the Peace, punishable by fine, any white man may, by consent of

1520-513: The Red Bluff Beacon , Dr. Brendan Lindsay argues that: “Settlers and ranchers, particularly those who had lost animals in stock raid, were tempted by a new, easily accessible source for replacement animals. Worse still, the human resources represented by Native people, especially women and children, made Nome Cult and Nome Lackee popular places to obtain low-cost laborers, slaves, and women to rape.” An annual 100-mile Nome Cult Trail Walk

1600-792: The "suppression of Indian hostilities." These bonds were continued in the year 1857 in the amount of $ 410,000. In April 1863, after the Emancipation Proclamation, the indenture and "apprecenticeship" of Native Americans was abolish by the California Legislature. The law was repealed in 1866, after the 14th Amendment was added to the United States Constitution . This stated that no state should infringe on any citizen's privileges or immunities, nor deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny any one person

1680-457: The Act opened the door to private land ownership for Indians. Although the land was allotted, it was still held in trust by the government. However, in 1920, allotees were allowed to "fee patent" their land: to receive a deed to it by giving up its trust status and accompanying benefits, such as freedom from taxation. Some Round Valley People lost their land as a result. Either they were unable to pay

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1760-511: The California region by 1852. Cumulatively, these treaties set aside almost 7.5 million acres of land, close to one third of the land in California, specifically for Native use. These treaties also consisted of substantial nourishment, providing money for meals and resources in a hope to have the tribes be self-sufficient. Almost immediately, these treaties were opposed in the State Senate, and ordered to be opposed in ratification, calling for

1840-765: The California state militia to report to the Bidwell Ranch in Chico to be removed to the Round Valley Reservation at Covelo in Mendocino County . Any Native Americans remaining in the area were to be shot. 461 Concow Maidu were forced to march under guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range . Only 277 reached Round Valley reservation on September 18, 1862 as 150 were too ill and malnourished to finish

1920-638: The Concow Maidu along the Nome Cult Trail follows from a long history of settler colonialism and colonial resource extraction. As Bauer states in We Were All Like Migrant Workers Here : “After the discovery of gold, white miners and ranchers poured into northern California. They found lush valleys that were amenable to raising livestock, rivers that promised to yield easy mineral wealth, and wild life teeming in

2000-527: The Concows from John Bidwell’s ranch to Round Valley reservation. Starting at Camp Bidwell, the Concow Maidu were forced to march ten miles and camped at Colby's Ferry on the Sacramento River to rest, where there was food and water available. While the cavalry rode horses, those unable to travel by foot were brought via wagon along with additional supplies. On 5 September, the group ferried across

2080-690: The Government and Protection of Indians The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians (Chapter 133, Cal. Stats. , April 22, 1850), nicknamed the Indian Indenture Act was enacted by the first session of the California State Legislature and signed into law by the 1st Governor of California , Peter Hardeman Burnett . The legislation led to the forced labor of many Native Americans in California , in addition to regulating employment terms and redefining criminal activity and punishment. The legislation played

2160-705: The Konkow Maidu were also present at the reservation and experienced the same violence and destruction under the same system as the Yuki at the Round Valley Reservation. Professors Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn echo Madley’s argument in their book The History and Sociology of Genocide: The authors argue that the violence against the Yuki in Northern California is “a clearer case of genocide” as “the impact of kidnapping, epidemics, starvation, vigilante justice, and state-sanctioned mass killing” contributed to

2240-661: The Native Americans were forced to hike six miles to Lacock Ranch on Thomas Creek. The wagons which had been transporting elders, children, and those too sick to walk, were returned to Chico at this point, and the group waited for four days along Thomas Creek for a mulepack train from Round Valley. On the fifth day, Captain Starr marched the group of Native Americans to Mountain Home camp, moving three miles on foot. The party stayed at Mountain Home between 12 and 14 September. When

2320-542: The Native Californians in the area, conveying that those Indigenous to the land were of the lowest grade of being, and held little inclination to work or improve their status. King made the assumption that they could benefit from teachings of arts of civilization. Adam Johnston had a similar report, concluding that Indigenous groups were in a low stage of development, and were being pushed out of their homes by migrants. These reports most likely held influence over

2400-536: The Nome Cult Farm in the homeland of the Yuki Native Californians. Storms’ report to Thomas J. Henley, California’s Superintendent of Indian Affairs describes his impressions Round Valley and his intention to establish a reservation in the area: “On the 14th we got an early start and arrived at the Valley a little after sun rise – this day as well as the 15th, 16th, & 17th we spent in exploring

2480-486: The Nome Cult Farm was not established by a treaty, the Nome Cult workers depended solely on U.S. government allocations, rather than treaty annuities which typically provide a higher degree of protection against resource shortages. Government agents failed to protect Indigenous women and children from kidnapping by white settlers who sold these individuals into slavery. Violence between white squatters and indigenous workers

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2560-763: The Nome Cult Mountain House Trail as part of a number of hiking trails in Mendocino National Forest . Round Valley Reservation The Round Valley Indians consists of the Covelo Indian Community. This community is an accumulation of people from several tribes: the Yuki , who were the original inhabitants of Round Valley, Concow Maidu , Little Lake and other Pomo , Nomlaki , Cahto , Wailaki , and Pit River peoples. They were forced onto this remnant of

2640-543: The Sacramento River and marched another ten miles to Stoney Creek, where the water was too salty to drink. The cavalry forced the weary and tired group to march another five miles before finally resting at Kirkpatrick Ranch. During the hot late summer night, nine Native Americans died from exhaustion and thirst. The mourners were given nearly no time to grieve and were forced by the cavalry to march another twelve miles from Kirkpatrick Ranch to James Ranch. During that night more perished from malnutrition and illness. On 8 September

2720-675: The State of California. Superintendent Henley requested that the United States Army be sent to the valley to mediate. Late in 1858, a company of the U. S. Army departed Benicia for Mendocino County . Due to inclement weather, the march was forced to halt at Fort Weller in Redwood Valley , but Lieutenant Edward Dillon was sent ahead with a party of seventeen men to occupy the barracks in Round Valley. Fort Wright

2800-542: The Valley, and getting all the Information I could in regard to the Indians, their Numbers, habits, xxxx &c. On the first day of my arrival I was satisfied in my own Mind, that of all the places I have ever seen, this was the place for an Indian Reservation. And accordingly I laid claim to the Valley in the name of the Government for that purpose. In the afternoon I called my party around me and christened it ‘Nome Cult’ Valley.” The Yuki, Nisenan, and Atsugewis performed

2880-494: The Yuki. The Yuki had to share their home with strangers who spoke other languages, lived with other beliefs, and who used the land and its products differently. Indians came to Round Valley as they did to other reservations - by force. The word "drive", widely used at the time, is descriptive of the practice of "rounding up" Indians and "driving" them like cattle to the reservation where they were "corralled" by high picket fences. Such drives took place in all weather and seasons, and

2960-508: The abandonment at Mountain House reached Fort Wright , the commandant Captain Douglas sent Superintendent James Short to bring food to those dying along the trail and several wagon teams to bring them back to the fort. After 13 days, Short was able to save only "a portion of them". According to a later report, Short described the horrific scene: ... about 150 sick Indians were scattered along

3040-670: The area and setting a precedent of horrific violence against Native Americans in California. Beginning in July 1846, The United States occupied California. In an effort to mediate conflict, General Stephen Kearny , governor of California, appointed John Sutter and Mariano Vallejo to offices as subagents for the Indians, near Sacramento and San Francisco, respectively, in April 1847 to secure information pertaining to Native Californians in their respective areas, establish local regulations, and considered themselves protectors of those Indigenous to

3120-444: The area. However, the interactions that took place were not protective and not peaceful. As a result, Lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman authorized any person to shoot those Native to the area, if caught stealing a horse. Natives that were employed were required to have certification on them beginning November 1, 1847, and those caught without these certificates were to be considered horse-thieves, and arrested and punished as such. At

3200-429: The area. This led to many instances of massacre, with groups of natives becoming smaller in size and weaker in their ability to fight back. They were already battling disease and lack of food. Some communities during the California gold rush offered bounties for Indian heads or scalps. Hence, Indian raiders could bring the evidence of their kill in, and receive direct local compensation, leading to sanctioned genocide in

3280-527: The broader California genocidal campaign. In his journal article entitled “California’s Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History,” Madley argues that six key characteristics that defined the treatment of Yuki at Round Valley Reservation as a holocaust: “First, vigilantes – rather than state employees – carried out most of the killing, kidnapping, and violence. Second, state and federal decision-makers enabled these acts. Third,

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3360-473: The cavalrymen, they had too few supplies for the winter. Tribal members and their descendants tell stories of impatient soldiers using whips on the marchers, shooting anyone trying to escape, and beating the children against rocks and trees. Tom-ya-yem, a Concow Maidu man forced on this march recounted the experience in a letter to Lieutenant Tassin: The Indians continued their journey onward until reaching their destination. So I went with my people and camped in

3440-540: The command of Captain Augustus Starr . The California Gold Rush of 1849 led to an influx of miners and ranchers who settled in the Sierra Nevada and Northern California goldfield regions. The mining of gold disrupted indigenous California communities through the degradation of the environment on which they depended, violent attacks on Native California villages by white settlers, and the implementation of

3520-611: The dramatic population decline of the Yuki people. Scholars have also argued that the establishment of the Nome Cult Farm / Round Valley reservation set the stage for further labor and land exploitation as Baumgardner explains in his book Killing for Land in Early California: “In Round Valley, California, as well as in numerous other frontier settlements throughout the West, many Native Americans lived out their lives working to help build Euro-American farms and ranches that were

3600-520: The elderly and sick often did not survive. From years of intermarriage, a common lifestyle, and a shared land base, a unified community emerged. The descendants of Yuki, Concow Maidu, Little Lake and other Pomo, Nomlaki, Cahto, Wailaki, Pit River peoples formed a new tribe on the reservation, the Covelo Indian Community, later to be called the Round Valley Indian Tribes. Their heritage is a rich combination of different cultures with

3680-426: The equal protection of the law. Lingering slave trafficking faded out in the 1870s, largely due to the decreasing population of Native Americans in the area as well as the increase in immigrants from other nations, namely China and European countries. In 1851, a process of treaty writing began following the appointment of three commissioners by the federal government, with 18 treaties negotiated with various tribes in

3760-518: The final three mile hike up to elevations beyond 6,000 ft (1,800 m), spending their last night on the journey at the junction of the South and Middle Forks of the Eel River , before their final descent into Round Valley . During the last difficult days of the journey, some mothers reportedly tried to kill their babies fearing their children would be abandoned if they were to die. When news of

3840-618: The first tool in California-Native American relations used in attempt to assimilated Natives into the general population. The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians is in line with other laws passed in the state of California during this time, such as the Greaser Act in 1855 and the Foreign Miners' Tax Act of 1850 (repealed in 1851 and reinstated in 1852). This act had devastating impacts on

3920-464: The forerunners of the agribusiness corporate giants of today.” The removal of indigenous Northern California has also been viewed through the lens of environmental injustice. Land dispossession and natural resource exploitation (through unsustainable agricultural production and cattle ranching) encouraged the exploitation of Indigenous bodies through removal, enslavement, kidnapping, and sexual violence. Through an analysis of newspaper articles published in

4000-534: The highest bidder. The money received for his hire, shall, after deducting the costs, and the necessary expenses, be paid into the County Treasury, to the credit of the Indian Fund. But if he have a family, the same shall be appropriated for their use and benefit. Since ratification, there were minor changes made to the Act. Amendments to the act were passed in 1860. Under the amendment of section 3, it

4080-599: The indigenous population and its way of life, or their claims to traditional lands. Indeed, the concept of human rights either did not exist or was strictly reserved for European-Americans. Native Americans were forced from their lands, had their children kidnapped, were forced into indentured servitude, or quite simply were murdered. Retaliatory action from Native Americans was met with swift and often violent retribution. Many scholars, including historian Benjamin Madley, have linked indigenous removal to Round Valley Reservation to

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4160-477: The justice, give bond for said Indian, conditioned for the payment of said fine and costs, and in such case the Indian shall be compelled to work for the person so bailing, until he has discharged or cancelled the fine assessed against him. 16. An Indian convicted of stealing horses, mules, cattle, or any valuable thing, shall be subject to receive any number of lashes not exceeding twenty-five, or shall be subject to

4240-404: The land by force. When the reservation was established, the Yuki people (as they came to be called) of Round Valley were forced into a difficult and unusual situation. Their traditional homeland was not completely taken over by settlers as in other parts of California. Instead, a small part of it was reserved especially for their use as well as the use of other Indians, many of whom were enemies of

4320-782: The land formerly occupied by the Yuki tribe. The Round Valley Indian Reservation began in 1856 as the Nome Cult Farm , an administrative extension of the Nomi Lackee Reservation located on the Northwestern edge of the Sacramento Valley, one of the five reservations in California legislated by the United States Government in 1852. The system of Indian reservations freed Indian land for the settlers' use, and cleared natives from

4400-509: The legal ability to buy and sell land, hold deeds and to take out loans. The land was put back into trust status and trust land could not be used as security. When first recognized, the tribe and reservation were both known as the Covelo Indian Community. Other Pomo communities in Mendocino County: 39°53′34″N 123°19′44″W  /  39.89278°N 123.32889°W  / 39.89278; -123.32889 Act for

4480-699: The legislation was in effect, the Native Californian population of Los Angeles decreased from 3,693 to 219 people. Although the California legislature repealed parts of the statute after the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished involuntary servitude in 1865, it was not repealed in its entirety until 1937. In 2019, Governor Gavin Newsom apologized on behalf of the state of California for

4560-440: The legislation. Prior to 1846, the non-native population of California was limited to less than 15,000 people, however, during the California gold rush , this population had grown to 100,000 people. Tensions built between Anglo-American miners and Native Californians in the area. Early on in the gold rush, miners banded together in what were essentially militia groups, contributing to harassment and murder of Indigenous peoples in

4640-451: The majority won, and those considered native to the area of California were not allowed to vote. On April 22, 1850, the first California Legislature passed An Act for the Government and Protection of Indians, initially introduced as An Act relative to the protection, punishment, and government of Indians by Senator Chamberlin . The Act in essence facilitated the removal of Indigenous groups native to present-day California, and separated

4720-400: The manual labor necessary to provision the farm and build its infrastructure. Once established, these groups performed most of the agricultural work including planting and harvesting crops and tending to livestock. [6] As Native labor was necessary for the operation of the Nome Cult Farm, government officials established a system of unfree labor in which Round Valley Native Americans did not have

4800-499: The march, 32 died en route, and 2 escaped. Today, there are close to 2,000 Maidu people who currently belong to the Federally Recognized Native Tribes of Berry Creek, Enterprise, and Mooretown Rancherias in Northern California. The Maidu people continue to make contributions to their Nation, their communities, and the world, especially through establishing strong administrative and financial systems at

4880-469: The mountains. In order to reap the bounty, ranchers and farmers demanded access to Indian workers.” Professor Jesse Dizard, Chair (2018) CSU Chico Department of Anthropology gives the following context: The Concow Trail of Tears was not an isolated event. Tension between white settlers and Native American communities had been growing for years. The Gold Rush of 1849 brought hundreds of thousands to California, most of them young men who cared very little for

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4960-421: The mule pack train arrived on 14 September, the group set out again, the majority of them on foot; those who were sick but well enough to travel rode muleback; one wagon carried the children. They left behind 150 Maidu who were too ill from malnourishment and the hardship of the journey, with only enough food supplies for a month. The weary group then traveled to camp at Cedar Springs, on a seven-mile march high into

5040-566: The new taxes on it or they sold it to whites or other Indians for the cash. Others prospered by establishing farming and stock-raising operations. They leased extra land and raised garden vegetables, hay, hogs, and cattle. In 1934, the United States Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act . In the interests of promoting self-government, only those Indian organizations consisting of elected councils, rather than those based on cultural traditions, were recognized as tribes by

5120-470: The policies that came to follow, enforcing the concentration and distribution of resources by the federal government. In 1849, the first constitution of California was created by the delegates of the California Constitutional Convention . There was debate over whether those considered native to California should have the right to vote. A minority cited the Declaration of Independence and taxation without representation as reason to allow it, though ultimately

5200-464: The population of those native to the area of California. Prior to the gold rush, it is estimated that there were between 100,000 and 125,000 Native Californians living in the state. The location of these instances of violence and disregard of human rights have become significant in present-day movements. Native groups have since used this auction location as a common protest site, emphasizing the location's history of injustice. There were lasting effects of

5280-443: The rancherias aiming to improve tribal health. The current residents of the Round Valley Reservation host an annual walk on the Nome Cult Trail to commemorate the 1863 Removal of their Concow Maidu ancestors. 461 members of the Concow Maidu were rounded up and, on 4 September 1863, were forced to march over 100 miles (160 km) from Chico, California to the Round Valley Indian Reservation , escorted by 23 US cavalrymen under

5360-417: The removal and displacement of Native Californians Indians from their traditional lands, separating at least a generation of children and adults from their families, languages, and cultures from 1850 to 1865. Due to the nature of California court records, it is difficult to estimate of the number of Native Americans enslaved as a result of the legislation. During the time period between 1850 and 1870 in which

5440-405: The removal of Indians due to the dislike of assigning large portions of promising agricultural land to those Native to the land.The United States government failed to ratify these treaties. In 1852, the first Superintendent of Indian Affairs in California, Edward F. Beale , was appointed, with a plan to establish at least five reserves. $ 250,000 was appropriated by Congress, and the Tejon Reserve

5520-471: The reservation involuntarily. The California state militia led removal campaigns against the Pit Rivers, Concows, and other northern Californian groups to the reservation. The relocated Concows fled the reservation in mid-1862, as an act of resistance against the violence they faced at Round Valley, returning to their homeland near what is today known as Chico, California. In the summer of 1863, General George Wright ordered Captain Augustus Starr to forcibly remove

5600-512: The same time, the United States ruled that Native Americans in the area did not have the right to sell or lease the lands on which they resided. Thomas Butler King was appointed to analyze conditions in California, particularly pertaining to Indigenous relations, by the President in 1849. "Indian agents" and "subagents" were as by the commissioner of Indian affairs in various areas, appointed to study land titles and further understand Indigenous relations. Thomas Butler King's report misrepresented

5680-440: The trail for 50 miles ... dying at the rate of 2 or 3 a day. They had nothing to eat ... and the wild hogs were eating them up either before or after they were dead. Only slightly more than half of the original 461 members survived the march. Along with the 150 left behind at Mountain House, 32 others died en route, and 2 others escaped before the remaining 277 Maidu eventually arrived at the reservation on 18 September. Left there by

5760-524: The violence was almost entirely one-sided. Fourth, large numbers of Yuki died due to willful neglect under federal custody. Fifth, this catastrophe fits the Genocide Convention definition. Finally, the Yuki case challenges Cook’s long-standing supposition that disease was the leading cause of death among California Indians under United States rule.” While Madley focuses specifically on the Yukis,

5840-502: Was allowed for Native children to be put under custody for the purpose of employment or training, and retain these services well into adulthood, namely 40 years old for men and 37 years old for women. Apprenticed minors were also capable of being obtained without the same parental or friend consent. Section 7 was amended so that if any person indenture a Native American except as provided in this act, he or they shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined and prosecuted. Later, in 1872, section 6

5920-568: Was also common at the farm and there were many instances of indigenous workers being murdered by white squatters who suffered no repercussions. By late 1858-1859, many Yukis and Nisenans had fled from the Nome Cult farm in an act of resistance, leading to a labor shortage. The beginning of the Civil War in 1861 exacerbated labor conditions in Round Valley and diverted the military to the war front which made Native Americans increasingly vulnerable to kidnappings and enslavement. California also amended

6000-471: Was common for ranchers and land owners to pay their workers, many of whom were Native Americans, in alcohol. Thus, public intoxication was almost encouraged, leading to frequent arrests and ensuing enslavement. After a few months of employment, it was common for enslaved Native Americans to be returned to the streets, typically in an area with alcohol in order to be declared a vagrant once again and be returned to labor. Workers were forced to work until their debt

6080-586: Was established in September 1853. Around 2,000 Natives were brought to the 50,000-acre land. However, in focusing on these efforts Beale neglected many other vulnerable Native Californians. In 1854, he was removed from his position. His replacement in 1854, Col. Thomas J. Henley , established the Nome Lacklee Reservation; Nome Cult , Mendocino ; Fresno Indian Farm; and Kings River Indian Farm. These reservations suffered from crop damage and

6160-664: Was nothing for us to eat, and my people began to fall as thick as the acorns in the fall of the year .. and there was no one here to do anything for us – the White Chief Doughlas [Capt. Doughlas, commander of the Army troops at Fort Wrigh], who sent his medicine man to take care of my sick, and Ad-sals and mules all the way to Chico to bring my people left dying on the trail – and here have remained ever since. Are we happy here? No my brother [Lieutenant Tassin], no we have not been happy since we left our home.” The removal of

6240-462: Was paid, and these citizens did not have to right to vote or testify in court. These auctions occurred in the streets of present-day Los Angeles , acting as a flourishing slave market from 1850 to 1870. Many men made livings off of these auctions, with young Native Californians being sold anywhere from $ 30 to $ 150. In the years of 1851 and 1852, the California Legislature financially incentivized harassment of Natives, authorizing pay of $ 1,100,000 for

6320-484: Was repealed. In 1872, the California Constitution was amended, granting Native Americans the right to testify in courts of law. This act allowed for any Native American that was strolling about to be declared vagrant by a white person and taken before a justice, to be subsequently sold at public auction, and was very much exploited in the overuse of this allowance by white Americans. At the time, it

6400-639: Was then established in December 1862, on the western edge of the Valley. Originally the soldiers were to protect the Indians from white attacks but soon, as part of the Bald Hills War , were deployed to capture Indians throughout the area and bring them to confinement on the reservation. President Ulysses S. Grant formally established the Round Valley Indian Reservation by Executive Order on March 30, 1870, pursuant to

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