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53-676: The North Caucasus , or Ciscaucasia , is a subregion in Eastern Europe governed by Russia . It constitutes the northern part of the wider Caucasus region, which separates Europe and Asia . The North Caucasus is bordered by the Sea of Azov and Black Sea to the west, the Caspian Sea to the east, and the Caucasus Mountains to the south. The region shares land borders with the countries of Georgia and Azerbaijan in

106-782: A nonviolent annexation in January 1921. It was reformed into the Mountainous ASSR , which was later dissolved in October 1924, replaced by a series of autonomous Okrugs and Oblasts. The outer border of the Soviet Union's North Caucasus Krai was the same as that of present-day North Caucasus Economic Region (Raion) which includes an oblast ( Rostov Oblast ), two krais ( Krasnodar Krai and Stavropol Krai ), and seven republics. The former North Caucasus Military District (Okrug) also included Astrakhan Oblast , Volgograd Oblast , and

159-528: A role as well. The most notable operation on this front, Operation White Sword , saw an unsuccessful advance towards the Russian capital of Petrograd in the autumn of 1919. The defeated anti-Bolshevik Russians went into exile, congregating in Belgrade , Berlin , Paris , Harbin , Istanbul , and Shanghai . They established military and cultural networks that lasted through World War II (1939–1945), e.g.

212-744: Is a continental landmass comprising the continents of North America and South America . [REDACTED] Africa [REDACTED] Antarctica [REDACTED] Asia [REDACTED] Australia [REDACTED] Europe [REDACTED] North America [REDACTED] South America [REDACTED] Afro-Eurasia [REDACTED] Americas [REDACTED] Eurasia [REDACTED] Oceania White movement Central Powers intervention : Separatists: Other factions: The White movement (Russian: pre–1918 Бѣлое движеніе / post–1918 Белое движение , romanized : Beloye dvizheniye , IPA: [ˈbʲɛləɪ dvʲɪˈʐenʲɪɪ] ), also known as

265-845: Is bounded by the Sea of Azov on the west, and the Caspian Sea on the east. According to the Concise Atlas of the World, Second Edition (2008), the Ciscaucasus region lies on the European side of the "commonly-accepted division" that separates Europe from Asia. Russia completed the conquest of the North Caucasus by 1864. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims, including Circassians , Chechens , Ingush, Ossetians, and others, became refugees in

318-530: Is divided between a number of republics and krais . It is administered as part of the North Caucasian and Southern Federal Districts and consists of Krasnodar Krai , Stavropol Krai , and the constituent republics, approximately from west to east: the Republic of Adygea , Karachay-Cherkessia , Kabardino-Balkaria , North Ossetia–Alania , Ingushetia , Chechnya , and Republic of Dagestan and to

371-527: Is used for carrying out statistical analysis. The division's first publication was the book World's Women 2000: Trends and Statistics in 2000. According to the UN, the assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories. The following is a non-exhaustive list of subregions, arranged alphabetically by region (i.e., by continent); in

424-759: The "Armed Forces of the South of Russia" in January 1919. The Southern Front featured massive-scale operations and posed the most dangerous threat to the Bolshevik Government. At first it depended entirely upon volunteers in Russia proper, mostly the Cossacks, among the first to oppose the Bolshevik Government. On 23 June 1918, the Volunteer Army (8,000–9,000 men) began its so-called Second Kuban Campaign with support from Pyotr Krasnov . By September,

477-566: The Caucasus Emirate and, from June 2015, the Islamic State . The insurgency became relatively dormant in its later years. During its peak, the violence was mostly concentrated in the North Caucasus republics of Chechnya , Dagestan , Ingushetia and Kabardino-Balkaria . Occasional incidents happened in surrounding regions, such as North Ossetia–Alania , Karachay-Cherkessia , Stavropol Krai , and Volgograd Oblast . While

530-701: The Czechoslovak Legions , who were then stranded in Siberia by the Bolshevik Government, who had barred them from leaving Russia, and with the Japanese, who also intervened to help the Whites in the east. Admiral Alexander Kolchak headed the eastern White Army and a provisional Russian government. Despite some significant success in 1919, the Whites were defeated being forced back to Far Eastern Russia, where they continued fighting until October 1922. When

583-733: The German Empire in its extended occupation of western Russia , the Baltic states , Poland , and Ukraine on the Eastern Front in the closing days of the World War, debating whether or not to ally with it. The Whites wanted to keep from alienating any potential supporters and allies and thus saw an exclusively monarchist position as a detriment to their cause and recruitment. White-movement leaders, such as Anton Denikin , advocated for Russians to create their own government, claiming

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636-858: The Harbin and Shanghai Russians . Afterward, the White Russians' anti-communist activists established a home base in the United States, to which numerous refugees emigrated. Moreover, in the 1920s and the 1930s the White movement established organisations outside Russia, which were meant to depose the Soviet government with guerrilla warfare , e.g., the Russian All-Military Union , the Brotherhood of Russian Truth , and

689-639: The Manych River . Owing to its mild climate compared to much of Russia, the region has been described as Russia's " sunbelt ". Ancient cultures of the Northern Caucasus are known as Klin-Yar community, with one of the most notable cultures being the ancient Koban culture . Ciscaucasus was historically covered by the Pontic–Caspian steppe , mostly on fertile calcareous chernozyom soils, which has been almost completely tilled and grazed. It

742-704: The National Alliance of Russian Solidarists , a far-right anticommunist organization founded in 1930 by a group of young White emigres in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Some White émigrés adopted pro-Soviet sympathies and were termed "Soviet patriots". These people formed organizations such as the Mladorossi , the Eurasianists , and the Smenovekhovtsy . A Russian cadet corps was established to prepare

795-493: The National Alliance of Russian Solidarists . Other organizations either dissolved, or began concentrating exclusively on self-preservation and/or educating the youth. Various youth organizations, such as the Russian Scouts-in-Exteris, promoted providing children with a background in pre-Soviet Russian culture and heritage. Some supported Zog I of Albania during the 1920s and a few independently served with

848-844: The Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War . White Russians also served alongside the Soviet Red Army during the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang and the Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang in 1937 . After the February Revolution , in western Russia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared themselves independent, but they had substantial Communist or Russian military presence. Civil wars followed, wherein

901-604: The Ottoman Empire . The Ottoman government settled North Caucasian refugees in territories of modern-day Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Georgia, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Kosovo, Greece, Cyprus, and North Macedonia, creating a large North Caucasian diaspora. Much of the Northern Caucasus seceded from Russia in March 1917 as the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus , taking advantage of

954-417: The Republic of Kalmykia . Its administrative center was Rostov-on-Don until 10 January 1934, Pyatigorsk until January 1936, then Ordzhonikidze (today Vladikavkaz) and, from 15 December 1936, Voroshilovsk (today Stavropol). The North Caucasus region experienced widespread unrest and insurgency after the fall of the Soviet Union, including a low-level armed conflict between Russia and militants associated with

1007-683: The Socialist Revolutionary Party , and others who opposed Lenin's Bolshevik coup in October 1917. Depending on the time and place, those White Army supporters might also exchange right-wing allegiance for allegiance to the Red Army. Unlike the Bolsheviks, the White Armies did not share a single ideology, methodology, or political goal. They were led by conservative generals with different agendas and methods, and for

1060-641: The South Caucasus . Located in the south of the region, Mount Elbrus is the tallest peak in Europe. Krasnodar is the most populous among the urban centres in the region. The North Caucasus came under Russian control in the 19th century, following the Caucasian War between the Russian Empire and the various regional powers. The territory is the southernmost portion of Russia and

1113-577: The Whites (Бѣлые / Белые, Beliye ), was a loose confederation of anti-communist forces that fought the communist Bolsheviks , also known as the Reds , in the Russian Civil War (1917–1923) and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of rebels both outside and within Russian borders in Siberia until roughly World War II (1939–1945). The movement's military arm

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1166-526: The Bolsheviks in January 1918) could be convened. They worked to remove Soviet organizations and functionaries in White-controlled territory. Overall, the White Army was nationalistic and rejected ethnic particularism and separatism . The White Army generally believed in a united multinational Russia and opposed separatists who wanted to create nation-states. The propaganda service of

1219-591: The Civil War. The Volunteer Army in South Russia became the most prominent and the largest of the various and disparate White forces. Starting off as a small and well-organized military in January 1918, the Volunteer Army soon grew. The Kuban Cossacks joined the White Army and conscription of both peasants and Cossacks began. In late February 1918, 4,000 soldiers under the command of General Aleksei Kaledin were forced to retreat from Rostov-on-Don due to

1272-491: The Elders of Zion . Although Denikin's troops committed only 17.2% of the pogroms (most of which were carried out by Ukrainian nationalists or by rebel armies not affiliated with any side), "white" officers praise soldiers who commit anti-Semitic crimes, some of whom even receive bonuses. British parliamentary influential leader Winston Churchill (1874–1965) personally warned General Anton Denikin (1872–1947), formerly of

1325-825: The Imperial Army and later a major White military leader, whose forces effected pogroms and persecutions against the Jews: [M]y task in winning support in Parliament for the Russian Nationalist cause will be infinitely harder if well-authenticated complaints continue to be received from Jews in the zone of the Volunteer Armies. However, Denikin did not dare to confront his officers and remained content with vague formal condemnations. Aside from being anti-Bolshevik and anti-communist and patriotic,

1378-570: The Japanese withdrew, the Soviet army of the Far Eastern Republic retook the territory. The Civil War was officially declared over at this point, although Anatoly Pepelyayev still controlled the Ayano-Maysky District at that time. Pepelyayev's Yakut revolt , which concluded on 16 June 1923, represented the last military action in Russia by a White Army. It ended with the defeat of the final anti-communist enclave in

1431-594: The Jews were more complex. Some historians distinguish the White movement from the so-called "democratic counter-revolution" led mainly by the Right SRs and the Mensheviks that adhered to the values of parliamentary democracy and maintained democratic anti-Bolshevik governments ( Komuch , Ufa Directory ) until November 1918 and then supported either the Whites or the Bolsheviks or opposed both factions. Following

1484-539: The Red Army due to military and ideological disunity, as well as the determination and increasing unity of the Red Army. The White Army operated in three main theatres : White organising in the South started on 15 November 1917, ( Old Style ) under General Mikhail Alekseyev . In December 1917, General Lavr Kornilov took over the military command of the newly named Volunteer Army until his death in April 1918, after which General Anton Denikin took over, becoming head of

1537-853: The Slavo-British Aviation Corps (S.B.A.C.). The Russian ace Alexander Kazakov operated within this unit. The White movement's leaders and first members came mainly from the ranks of military officers. Many came from outside the nobility, such as generals Mikhail Alekseyev and Anton Denikin , who originated in serf families, or General Lavr Kornilov , a Cossack. The White generals never mastered administration; they often utilized "prerevolutionary functionaries" or "military officers with monarchististic inclinations" for administering White-controlled regions. The White Armies were often lawless and disordered. Also, White-controlled territories had multiple different and varying currencies with unstable exchange-rates. The chief currency,

1590-415: The UN geoscheme, higher-level, macro-geographical regions are arranged to the extent possible according to continents. Sequence used in the list (not all criteria are applied to each continent): Afro-Eurasia is a continental landmass comprising the continents of Africa , Asia , and Europe . Eurasia is a continental mainland comprising the continents of Asia and Europe . The Americas

1643-828: The Volunteer Army comprised 30,000 to 35,000 members, thanks to mobilization of the Kuban Cossacks gathered in the North Caucasus . Thus, the Volunteer Army took the name of the Caucasus Volunteer Army. On 23 January 1919, the Volunteer Army under Denikin oversaw the defeat of the 11th Soviet Army and then captured the North Caucasus region. After capturing the Donbas , Tsaritsyn and Kharkiv in June, Denikin's forces launched an attack towards Moscow on 3 July, (N.S.). Plans envisaged 40,000 fighters under

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1696-476: The Volunteer Army grew from 64,000 to 150,000 soldiers and was better supplied than its Red counterpart. The White Army's rank-and-file comprised active anti-Bolsheviks, such as Cossacks, nobles, and peasants, as conscripts and as volunteers. The White movement had access to various naval forces, both seagoing and riverine, especially the Black Sea Fleet . Aerial forces available to the Whites included

1749-991: The Volunteer Army's ruble, had no gold backing . The Whites and the Reds fought the Russian Civil War from November 1917 until 1921, and isolated battles continued in the Far East until June 1923. The White Army—aided by the Allied forces ( Triple Entente ) from countries such as Japan , the United Kingdom , France , Greece , Italy and the United States and (sometimes) the Central Powers forces such as Germany and Austria-Hungary —fought in Siberia , Ukraine , and in Crimea . They were defeated by

1802-436: The Volunteer Army, the Osvag  [ ru ] ( Russian : ОСВАГ (ОСВедомительное АГентство) , romanized :  OSVAG (OSVedomitelnoe AGentstvo) , lit.   'Informing Agency'), made the claim that "the Jews must pay for everything: for the February and October revolutions, for Bolshevism and for the peasants who took their land from the owners". The organization also reissued The Protocols of

1855-429: The White movement had no unifying political convictions, as members could be monarchists, republicans, rightists, or Kadets . Among White Army leaders, neither General Lavr Kornilov nor General Anton Denikin were monarchists, yet General Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel was a monarchist willing to fight for a republican Russian government. Moreover, other political parties supported the anti-Bolshevik White Army, among them

1908-444: The Whites had no set ideology or main leader. The White Armies did acknowledge a single provisional head of state in a Supreme Governor of Russia in a Provisional All-Russian Government , but this post was prominent only under the leadership in the war campaigns during 1918–1920 of Admiral Alexander Kolchak , formerly of the previous Russian Imperial Navy . The movement had no set foreign policy. Whites differed on policies toward

1961-423: The advance of the Red Army. In what became known as the Ice March , they traveled to Kuban in order to unite with the Kuban Cossacks , most of whom did not support the Volunteer Army. In March, 3,000 men under the command of General Viktor Pokrovsky joined the Volunteer Army, increasing its membership to 6,000, and by June to 9,000. In 1919 the Don Cossacks joined the Army. In that year between May and October,

2014-472: The anti-communist side may be referred to as White Armies, e.g. in Finland the White Guard -led, partially conscripted Finnish White Army  [ fi ] ( Finnish : Valkoinen Armeija ) who fought against Soviet Russia -sponsored Red Guards . However, since they were nationalists, their aims were substantially different from the Russian White Army proper; for instance, Russian White generals never explicitly supported Finnish independence. The defeat of

2067-512: The command of General Vladimir May-Mayevsky storming the city. After General Denikin's attack upon Moscow failed in 1919, the Armed Forces of the South of Russia retreated. On 26 and 27 March 1920, the remnants of the Volunteer Army evacuated from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, where they merged with the army of Pyotr Wrangel . The Eastern Front started in spring 1918 as a secret movement among army officers and right-wing socialist forces. In that front, they launched an attack in collaboration with

2120-502: The country, signalling the end of all military hostilities relating to the Russian Civil War. Headed by Nikolai Yudenich , Evgeni Miller , and Anatoly Lieven , the White forces in the North demonstrated less co-ordination than General Denikin's Army of Southern Russia. The Northwestern Army allied itself with Estonia , while Lieven's West Russian Volunteer Army sided with the Baltic nobility . Authoritarian support led by Pavel Bermondt-Avalov and Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz played

2173-447: The figure of Alexander Kolchak as its principal leader. It defended the ideal of pre-revolutionary Imperial Russia , and its positive program was largely summarized in the slogan of " united and indivisible Russia  [ ru ] " which meant the restoration of imperial state borders and its denial of the right to self-determination ; the movement is associated with pogroms and antisemitism , although its relations with

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2226-418: The instability caused by the February Revolution and becoming a minor participant in the Russian Civil War . Mountainous Republic troops engaged in fierce clashes against the invading White General Anton Denikin 's Volunteer Army , before the latter's defeat at the hands of the Red Army . The region was informally occupied by the Soviet Union shortly afterwards, and the republic was forced into accepting

2279-481: The insurgency was officially declared over on 19 December 2017 when FSB Director Alexander Bortnikov announced the final elimination of the insurgent underground in the North Caucasus, counter-terrorism operations in the North Caucasus have not ended. In June 2022, the US State Department advised citizens not to travel to the North Caucasus, including Chechnya and Mount Elbrus , due to terrorism, kidnapping and risk of civil unrest. Other paramilitaries active in

2332-421: The main force behind the movement were the conservative officers, and the resulting movement shared many traits with widespread right-wing counter-revolutionary movements of the time, namely nationalism, racism, distrust of liberal and democratic politics, clericalism, contempt for the common man and dislike of industrial civilization; in November 1918, the movement united on an authoritarian-right platform around

2385-435: The military could not decide in Russians' steads. Admiral Alexander Kolchak succeeded in creating a temporary wartime government in Omsk , acknowledged by most other White leaders, but it ultimately disintegrated after Bolshevik military advances. Some warlords who were aligned with the White movement, such as Grigory Semyonov and Roman Ungern von Sternberg , did not acknowledge any authority but their own. Consequently,

2438-456: The military defeat of the Whites, remnants and continuations of the movement remained in several organizations, some of which only had narrow support, enduring within the wider White émigré overseas community until after the fall of the European communist states in the Eastern European Revolutions of 1989 and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990–1991. This community-in-exile of anti-communists often divided into liberal and

2491-421: The more conservative segments, with some still hoping for the restoration of the Romanov dynasty . In the Russian context after 1917, "White" had three main connotations which were: Defunct Above all, the White movement emerged as opponents of the Red Army . The White Army had the stated aim to reverse the October Revolution and remove the Bolsheviks from power before a constituent assembly (dissolved by

2544-408: The most part they operated quite independently of each other, with little coordination or cohesion. The composition and command structure of White armies also varied, some containing hardened veterans of World War I, others more recent volunteers. These differences and divisions, along with their inability to offer an alternative government and win popular support, prevented the White armies from winning

2597-421: The next generation of anti-Communists for the "spring campaign"—a hopeful term denoting a renewed military campaign to reclaim Russia from the Soviet Government. In any event, many cadets volunteered to fight for the Russian Protective Corps during World War II, when some White Russians participated in the Russian Liberation Movement . After the war, active anti-Soviet combat was almost exclusively continued by

2650-416: The north: Kalmykia . Geographically, the term North Caucasus also refers to the northern slope and western extremity of the Greater Caucasus mountain range, as well as a part of its southern slope to the West. The Pontic–Caspian steppe area is often also encompassed under the notion of a Ciscaucasus region, thus the northern boundary of the Forecaucasus steppe or Nogai steppe is generally considered to be

2703-471: The region have included the Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus , an anti-Georgian organization and a participant in the 1992–1993 Abkhaz conflict that based its flag and political agenda directly on those of the Mountainous Republic. The North Caucasus, especially in its mountainous territories, has the highest life expectancy in Russia. The region is known for a large number of centenarians . Russian political subdivisions associated with

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2756-481: The region include: Subregion The Statistics Division of the United Nations (UN) is in charge of the collection, processing, and dissemination of statistical information for the UN. In 1999, it developed a system of macro-geographical (continental) regions, subregions, and other selected economic groups to report advances towards achieving numerous millennial development goals worldwide. These statistical divisions were devised for statistical purposes and

2809-490: Was the White Army (Бѣлая армія / Белая армия, Belaya armiya ), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая гвардія / Белая гвардия, Belaya gvardiya ) or White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы / Белогвардейцы, Belogvardeytsi ). Although the White movement included a great variety of political opinions in Russia opposed to the Bolsheviks, from the republican-minded liberals through monarchists to the ultra-nationalist Black Hundreds , and did not have universally-accepted leader or doctrine,

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