Ernest Parke (26 February 1860–21 June 1944) was a political writer, editor, newspaper proprietor and local politician. In 1890, as the editor of The North London Press , he was imprisoned for libel for his reporting of the Cleveland Street scandal .
151-778: He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1860, the youngest of four sons of Anne née Hall (1824–1902) and Fenning Plowman Parke (1826–1902), an Excise Officer. On leaving King Edward VI School he worked in a bank in Stratford-upon-Avon until 1882. Having started to contribute pieces on local topics to the local newspapers, he took up a position as a journalist on the Birmingham Gazette , followed soon after by The Midland Echo in Birmingham , later becoming an assistant sub-editor on that paper. He
302-779: A Town Council . Stratford-upon-Avon is within the Stratford-on-Avon parliamentary constituency which has been represented by Manuela Perteghella of the Liberal Democrats since 2024. Stratford was within the West Midlands Region constituency of the European Parliament which was represented by seven Members of the European Parliament (MEPs). Stratford is governed by three tiers of local government : Stratford
453-628: A criminal offence , or both. Defamation and related laws can encompass a variety of acts (from general defamation and insult – as applicable to every citizen – to specialized provisions covering specific entities and social structures): Defamation law has a long history stretching back to classical antiquity. While defamation has been recognized as an actionable wrong in various forms across historical legal systems and in various moral and religious philosophies, defamation law in contemporary legal systems can primarily be traced back to Roman and early English law. Roman law
604-538: A guild known as the Guild of the Holy Cross for their business and religious requirements. The guild developed into the town's main institution of local government, and included the most important townsmen, who elected officials to oversee local affairs. They built a Guild Chapel in the 13th century, and a Guildhall and almshouses on Church Street in around 1417. The guild established an educational institution in
755-443: A per se action: If the plaintiff proves that such a statement was made and was false, to recover damages the plaintiff need only prove that someone had made the statement to any third party. No proof of special damages is required. However, to recover full compensation a plaintiff should be prepared to prove actual damages. As with any defamation case, truth remains an absolute defence to defamation per se . This means that even if
906-404: A ticket tout had passed him a card on which was written " Poses plastiques . C. Hammond, 19 Cleveland Street". Euston stated that he went to that address in the belief that Poses plastiques was actually a tableau of nude female. He paid an admission charge of a sovereign but upon entering he said he was appalled to discover the "improper" nature of the place and promptly left. The witnesses for
1057-419: A case the truth of the statements was no justification for the public and insulting manner in which they had been made, but, even in public matters, the accused had the opportunity to justify his actions by openly stating what he considered necessary for public safety to be denounced by the libel and proving his assertions to be true. The second head included defamatory statements made in private, and in this case
1208-466: A child with a Christian man, and that this act was common. Following Osborne's anti-Semitic publication, several Jews were attacked. Initially, the judge seemed to believe the court could do nothing since no individual was singled out by Osborne's writings. However, the court concluded that "since the publication implied the act was one Jews frequently did, the whole community of Jews was defamed." Though various reports of this case give differing accounts of
1359-799: A commoner in England was known as libel or slander, the defamation of a member of the English aristocracy was called scandalum magnatum, literally "the scandal of magnates". Following the Second World War and with the rise of contemporary international human rights law , the right to a legal remedy for defamation was included in Article 17 of the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which states that: This implies
1510-406: A criminal offence and provide for penalties as such. Article 19 , a British free expression advocacy group, has published global maps charting the existence of criminal defamation law across the globe, as well as showing countries that have special protections for political leaders or functionaries of the state. There can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in
1661-408: A defamation action typically requires that a plaintiff claiming defamation prove that the defendant: Additionally, American courts apply special rules in the case of statements made in the press concerning public figures, which can be used as a defence. While plaintiff alleging defamation in an American court must usually prove that the statement caused harm, and was made without adequate research into
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#17327838108361812-464: A famous trademark has been diluted through tarnishment, see generally trademark dilution , " intentional interference with contract ", and "negligent misrepresentation". In America, for example, the unique tort of false light protects plaintiffs against statements which are not technically false but are misleading. Libel and slander both require publication. Although laws vary by state; in America,
1963-476: A few miles of modern-day Stratford. The settlement which later became known as Stratford was first inhabited by Anglo-Saxons following their 7th-century invasion of what would become known as Warwickshire, but was then part of the Kingdom of Mercia . It is likely that an Anglo-Saxon monastery existed at the site of what is now Holy Trinity Church , which was founded after the land was acquired by Egwin ,
2114-481: A five-minute drive from the town centre. The Rosebird Centre is a much smaller shopping centre located on Shipston Road, consisting of Waitrose , a pet shop, a drive-thru Costa Coffee and a pharmacy/GP surgery. Bell Court Shopping Centre is in the centre of the town with entrances from Wood St, Ely St, High St & Rother Street. it has several restaurants and shopping offers. The first real theatre in Stratford
2265-458: A humiliating or degrading manner), et cetera. "Fama" is a generic term referring to reputation and actio iniuriarum pertaining to it encompasses defamation more broadly Beyond simply covering actions that fall within the broader concept of defamation, "actio iniuriarum" relating to infringements of a person's corpus provides civil remedies for assaults, acts of a sexual or indecent nature, and 'wrongful arrest and detention'. In Scots law , which
2416-489: A large canal side brewery in Stratford in 1831. The Flower & Sons Brewery, on Clopton Road survived until 1967, when the company was taken over by Whitbread . Several lime kilns were opened locally, and the manufacture of tarpaulin and oilcloth flourished. The advent of rail transport in the middle of the century caused a major decline in river and canal transport, and the River Avon navigation through Stratford
2567-481: A large retail sector. Major employers in the town include the NFU Mutual Insurance Company (and Avon Insurance), Amec Foster Wheeler , Sitel , Tesco , Morrisons , Marks & Spencer , B&Q and Pashley Cycles . There are three theatres run by the prestigious Royal Shakespeare Company , which attract large audiences and income for the town. The regular large influx of tourists
2718-434: A libel case in an American court, the statement must have been published knowing it to be false or with reckless disregard to its truth (i.e. actual malice ). The Associated Press estimates that 95% of libel cases involving news stories do not arise from high-profile news stories, but "run of the mill" local stories like news coverage of local criminal investigations or trials, or business profiles. An early example of libel
2869-528: A manner described as "brazen effrontery", Saul admitted to earning his living by leading an "immoral life" and "practising criminality", and detailed his alleged sexual encounters with Euston at the house. On 16 January 1890, the jury found Parke guilty of 'Maliciously publishing a false and defamatory libel' and the judge sentenced him to twelve months without hard labour in Millbank Prison . Following representations by other journalists on his behalf to
3020-502: A member of the agricultural small holdings and the land cultivation committees of Warwickshire County Council. Until his 83rd year he was physically robust and mentally alert, but during his last year his health began to fail and he gradually faded from the public life of Warwickshire. He died on 21 June 1944 at Warneford Hospital in Leamington Spa as the result of a fall at his home. He was cremated and his ashes were buried in
3171-491: A musical typewriter. There are five houses relating to William Shakespeare's life which are owned and cared for by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust . These include Hall's Croft , the one-time home of Shakespeare's daughter, Susanna , and her husband Dr. John Hall and Nash's House , which stands alongside the site of New Place which was owned by Shakespeare himself, wherein he died. In Shottery
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#17327838108363322-466: A person that is included in a personal database and that one knows to be false, is punished with six months to three years in prison. When there is harm to somebody, penalties are aggravated by an extra half (Article 117 bis, §§ 2nd and 3rd). Defamation law in Australia developed primarily out of the English law of defamation and its cases, though now there are differences introduced by statute and by
3473-574: A provably false factual connotation. Subsequent state and federal cases have addressed defamation law and the Internet. American defamation law is much less plaintiff-friendly than its counterparts in European and the Commonwealth countries . A comprehensive discussion of what is and is not libel or slander under American law is difficult, as the definition differs between different states and
3624-488: A re-branded official tourism website for the Stratford area called Discover Stratford after opening a new tourist information centre on Henley Street in May 2010, which has since moved back to the original location on Bridgefoot. Apart from the town centre, Maybird Shopping Park, usually referred to locally as "The Maybird Centre" or simply "The Maybird", is a large shopping centre situated on Birmingham Road, approximately
3775-634: A right to legal protection against defamation; however, this right co-exists with the right to freedom of opinion and expression under Article 19 of the ICCPR as well as Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Article 19 of the ICCPR expressly provides that the right to freedom of opinion and expression may be limited so far as it is necessary "for respect of the rights or reputations of others". Consequently, international human rights law provides that while individuals should have
3926-430: A statement, even if truthful, intended to harm the claimant out of malice; some have a separate tort or delict of " invasion of privacy " in which the making of a true statement may give rise to liability: but neither of these comes under the general heading of "defamation". The tort of harassment created by Singapore's Protection from Harassment Act 2014 is an example of a tort of this type being created by statute. There
4077-541: A tourist destination. Before the dominance of road and rail, Stratford was an important gateway to the network of British canals . The River Avon was made navigable through Stratford in 1639, by the construction of locks and weirs , providing Stratford with a navigable link to the River Severn to the south-west and to near Warwick to the north-east, this allowed, in the words of Daniel Defoe "a very great Trade for Sugar, Oil, Wine, Tobacco, Iron, Lead and in
4228-430: A village before the lord of the manor , John of Coutances , set out plans to develop it into a town in 1196. In that same year, Stratford was granted a charter from King Richard I to hold a weekly market in the town, giving it its status as a market town . As a result, Stratford experienced an increase in trade and commerce as well as urban expansion. Stratford is a popular tourist destination, owing to its status as
4379-667: A warrant for Parke's arrest on November 23, 1889 after Bow Street Magistrates' Court successfully proved the report against Euston to be libellous. Parke promptly turned himself into police custody. He had known for a week that he was likely be arrested and argued in his defence that he intentionally stayed in the country to accept the possibility of being charged with libel. Parke spent the entire weekend in jail and awaited trial for Monday morning. He meanwhile formed his defense team, consisting of Frank Lockwood , QC, and H. H. Asquith , who would later become Prime Minister during World War I . The hearing at Bow Street Magistrates' Court began on
4530-598: A word, all heavy goods which are carried by water almost as far as Warwick; and in return the corn, and especially the cheese, is brought back from Gloucestershire and Warwickshire to Bristol ". Between 1793 and 1816 the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal was built, linking the Avon at Stratford with Birmingham . By the early 19th century, Stratford was a flourishing inland port , and an important centre of trade, with many canal and river wharves along what
4681-458: Is Anne Hathaway's Cottage , the home of Shakespeare's wife 's family prior to her marriage. Mary Arden 's House ( Palmer's Farm ), the family home of his mother, is in Wilmcote . Defamation Defamation is a communication that injures a third party's reputation and causes a legally redressable injury. The precise legal definition of defamation varies from country to country. It
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4832-503: Is 'little historical basis in Scots law for the kind of structural difficulties that have restricted English law' in the development of mechanisms to protect so-called 'rights of personality'. The actio iniuriarum heritage of Scots law gives the courts scope to recognise, and afford reparation in, cases in which no patrimonial (or 'quasi-patrimonial') 'loss' has occurred, but a recognised dignitary interest has nonetheless been invaded through
4983-517: Is 22 miles (35 km) south-east of Birmingham . It is close to the northern edge of the Cotswolds , with Chipping Campden 10 miles (16 km) to the south. Stratford is around 6 miles (9.7 km) to the north-east of the borders with both Worcestershire and Gloucestershire . Other than those already mentioned, significant towns and villages nearby include Alcester , Wellesbourne , Evesham , Redditch and Henley-in-Arden . Stratford
5134-471: Is 40,000 ALL to three million ALL (c. $ 25 100 ). In addition, defamation of authorities, public officials or foreign representatives (Articles 227, 239 to 241) are separate crimes with maximum penalties varying from one to three years of imprisonment. In Argentina , the crimes of calumny and injury are foreseen in the chapter "Crimes Against Honor" (Articles 109 to 117-bis) of the Penal Code. Calumny
5285-467: Is a major employer, especially in the hotel, hospitality industry and catering sectors. Other industries in the town include boat building and maintenance, bicycles , mechanical and electrical engineering, food manufacture, Information Technology , call centre and service sector activities, a large motor sales sector, industrial plant hire, building suppliers, market gardening , farming, storage and transport logistics, finance and insurance , and
5436-522: Is a museum which explores the time when Shakespeare lived. It is based in a Grade II* listed town centre Tudor building and is the only museum in the country dedicated to Tudor times. Every week there is a walk around the town with Shakespeare. The Mechanical Art and Design museum, but better known as MAD museum, is a museum in Henley Street of "brilliant-but-bonkers machines" made by Kinetic artists . Items on show include mechanised flipbooks and
5587-417: Is also, in almost all jurisdictions, a tort or delict of " misrepresentation ", involving the making of a statement that is untrue even though not defamatory. Thus a surveyor who states a house is free from risk of flooding has not defamed anyone, but may still be liable to someone who purchases the house relying on this statement. Other increasingly common claims similar to defamation in U.S. law are claims that
5738-566: Is clear and accessible to everyone", 2) "proven to be necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputations of others", and 3) "proportionate and the least restrictive to achieve the purported aim". This test is analogous to the Oakes Test applied domestically by the Supreme Court of Canada in assessing whether limitations on constitutional rights are "demonstrably justifiable in a free and democratic society" under Section 1 of
5889-431: Is closely related to Roman Dutch law, the remedy for defamation is similarly the actio iniuriarium and the most common defence is "veritas" (i.e. proving the truth of otherwise defamatory statement). Defamation falls within the realm of non-patrimonial (i.e. dignitary) interests. The Scots law pertaining to the protection of non-patrimonial interests is said to be 'a thing of shreds and patches'. This notwithstanding, there
6040-544: Is defined as "the false imputation to a determined person of a concrete crime that leads to a lawsuit" (Article 109). However, expressions referring to subjects of public interest or that are not assertive do not constitute calumny. Penalty is a fine from 3,000 to 30,000 pesos . He who intentionally dishonor or discredit a determined person is punished with a penalty from 1,500 to 20,000 pesos (Article 110). He who publishes or reproduces, by any means, calumnies and injuries made by others, will be punished as responsible himself for
6191-496: Is divided by the River Avon , with the majority of the town being on the west side of the river, its riverside location means it is susceptible to flooding, including flash floods. Stratford has several suburbs : The town's urban area encompasses the contiguous sub-villages of Alveston , Shottery and Tiddington , which were formerly independent, but now form part of the civil parish of Stratford, other distinct suburbs of
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6342-574: Is further affected by federal law. Some states codify what constitutes slander and libel together, merging the concepts into a single defamation law. New Zealand received English law with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in February 1840. The current Act is the Defamation Act 1992 which came into force on 1 February 1993 and repealed the Defamation Act 1954 . New Zealand law allows for
6493-461: Is home to Orchestra of the Swan , a professional chamber orchestra staging up to 10 orchestral concerts with international soloists per year. Kempe Studio of The Rudolf Kempe Society, whose patron is Dame Judi Dench , is based in a house at 58 Waterside called The Muses and hosts musical events and masterclass lessons. No. 1 Shakespeare Street holds regular evenings of live music. Tudor World
6644-617: Is likely that Indian courts would treat this principle as persuasive precedent. Recently, incidents of defamation in relation to public figures have attracted public attention. The origins of U.S. defamation law pre-date the American Revolution . Though the First Amendment of the American Constitution was designed to protect freedom of the press, it was primarily envisioned to prevent censorship by
6795-764: Is more controversial as it involves the state expressly seeking to restrict freedom of expression . Human rights organisations, and other organisations such as the Council of Europe and Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , have campaigned against strict defamation laws that criminalise defamation. The freedom of expression advocacy group Article 19 opposes criminal defamation, arguing that civil defamation laws providing defences for statements on matters of public interest are better compliant with international human rights law. The European Court of Human Rights has placed restrictions on criminal libel laws because of
6946-552: Is no need to prove that specific damage or loss has occurred. However, Section 6 of the Act allows for a defamation action brought by a corporate body to proceed only when the body corporate alleges and proves that the publication of the defamation has caused or is likely to cause pecuniary loss to that body corporate. As is the case for most Commonwealth jurisdictions, Canada follows English law on defamation issues (except in Quebec where
7097-401: Is not defamation. While defamation torts are broadly similar across common law jurisdictions; differences have arisen as a result of diverging case law, statutes and other legislative action, and constitutional concerns specific to individual jurisdictions. Some jurisdictions have a separate tort or delict of injury , intentional infliction of emotional distress , involving the making of
7248-496: Is not necessarily restricted to making assertions that are falsifiable , and can extend to concepts that are more abstract than reputation – like dignity and honour . In the English-speaking world, the law of defamation traditionally distinguishes between libel (written, printed, posted online, published in mass media) and slander (oral speech). It is treated as a civil wrong ( tort , delict ), as
7399-567: Is now Bancroft Gardens. The first railway in Warwickshire; the Stratford and Moreton Tramway was opened to Stratford in 1826: this was a horse-drawn wagonway , 16 miles (26 km) long, which was intended to carry goods between the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal , the rural districts of south Warwickshire and Moreton-in-Marsh . The tramway fell into disuse by the early 1900s, and the tracks were lifted in 1918. A surviving remnant of this
7550-409: Is often purchased by publishers and journalists to cover potential damage awards from libel lawsuits. Roughly 3/4 of all money spent on claims by liability insurers goes to lawyers and only 1/4 goes to settlements or judgments, according to one estimate from Michelle Worrall Tilton of Media Risk Consultants. Some advise buying worldwide coverage that offers defense against cases regardless of where in
7701-477: Is situated on the River Avon , 91 miles (146 km) north-west of London , 22 miles (35 km) south-east of Birmingham and 8 miles (13 km) south-west of Warwick . The town is the southernmost point of the Arden area at the northern extremity of the Cotswolds . In the 2021 census Stratford had a population of 30,495. Stratford was inhabited originally by Britons before Anglo-Saxons and remained
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#17327838108367852-461: Is that of truth. Proving the truth of an allegedly defamatory statement is always a valid defence. Where a statement is partially true, certain jurisdictions in the Commonwealth have provided by statute that the defence "shall not fail by reason only that the truth of every charge is not proved if the words not proved to be true do not materially injure the claimant's reputation having regard to
8003-574: Is the Celtic word for river. The 'street' was a Roman road which connected Icknield Street in Alcester to the Fosse Way . The ford, which has been used as a crossing since Roman times, later became the location of Clopton Bridge . A survey of 1251–52 uses the name Stratford for the first time to identify Old Stratford and the newer manors . The name was used after that time to describe
8154-685: Is the Tramway Bridge over the River Avon, a brick arch bridge which now carries pedestrians. The first steam railway to reach Stratford was a branch of the Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway from Honeybourne to the south, which opened in July 1859. This was followed by the Stratford on Avon Railway 's branch from Hatton from the north, which opened in October 1860. Both branches initially had separate termini, but they soon agreed to join
8305-509: Is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish the New York Weekly Journal . When he printed another man's article criticising William Cosby , the royal governor of Colonial New York , Zenger was accused of seditious libel . The verdict was returned as not guilty on the charge of seditious libel, because it was proven that all the statements Zenger had published about Cosby had been true, so there
8456-510: Is the major source of the town's prosperity, receiving between 2.5 million and 3 million visitors annually. Stratford is a major English tourist town due to it being the birthplace of William Shakespeare , who many consider the greatest playwright of all time. In 2010 the District Council spent £298,000 on tourism promotion and supports an official open-top tour bus service. In 2010 Stratford-on-Avon District Council launched
8607-492: Is typically regarded as a tort for which the offended party can take civil action . The range of remedies available to successful plaintiffs in defamation cases varies between jurisdictions and range from damages to court orders requiring the defendant to retract the offending statement or to publish a correction or an apology. Modern defamation in common law jurisdictions are historically derived from English defamation law . English law allows actions for libel to be brought in
8758-528: The California Code of Civil Procedure and Ontario's Protection of Public Participation Act do so by enabling defendants to make a special motion to strike or dismiss during which discovery is suspended and which, if successful, would terminate the lawsuit and allow the party to recover its legal costs from the plaintiff. There are a variety of defences to defamation claims in common law jurisdictions. The two most fundamental defences arise from
8909-958: The 2011 census and 22,338 in the 2001 census . The town's population has undergone expansion in recent years following government approval to build 800 new homes in Shottery , which included plans for a new relief road. Up to 500 new homes are planned in the Bishopton area of the town, and 270 homes on the Loxley Road. In terms of ethnicity in 2021, 92.7% of Stratford residents were White , 3.3% were Asian , 0.6% were Black , 2.4% were Mixed , 0.2% were Arab and 0.8% were from another ethnic group. In terms of religion, 58.4% of Stratford residents identified as Christian , 38.2% said they had no religion , 1.0% were Muslim , 0.8% were Hindu , 0.5% were Sikh , 0.5% were Buddhists , 0.2% were Jewish , and 0.5% were from another religion. Tourism
9060-653: The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , the " necessary in a democratic society " test applied by the European Court of Human Rights in assessing limitations on rights under the ECHR, Section 36 of the post- Apartheid Constitution of South Africa , and Section 24 of the 2010 Constitution of Kenya. Nevertheless, the worldwide use of criminal and civil defamation , to censor, intimidate or silence critics, has been increasing in recent years. In 2011,
9211-444: The Commonwealth of Independent States , America, and Canada. Questions of group libel have been appearing in common law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of R v Orme and Nutt (1700). In this case, the jury found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects, though they did not specifically identify who these subjects were. A report of
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#17327838108369362-507: The Holy Trinity Church . During Stratford's early expansion into a town, the only access across the River Avon into and out of the town was over a wooden bridge, which was first mentioned in 1235. The bridge could not be crossed at times due to the river rising and was described by antiquarian John Leland as "a poor bridge of timber and no causeway to it, whereby many poor folks and other refused to come to Stratford when
9513-491: The Home Secretary Henry Matthews Parke was released from prison on 7 July 1890, having served half his sentence. He returned to The Star ; he was editor from 1891 to 1918, when he resigned. Having retired from his editorial roles Parke increased his numerous business commitments. He sat on the boards of national and local newspaper companies, including The Daily News and The Star ,
9664-508: The King Edward VI School The Cotswolds , located close to Stratford, was a major sheep-producing area up until the latter part of the 19th century, with Stratford one of its main centres for the processing, marketing, and distribution of sheep and wool. Consequently, Stratford became a centre for tanning during the 15th–17th centuries. Glove making was an important industry, which was at its zenith in
9815-706: The Royal Shakespeare Theatre (RST), the Swan Theatre closed in 2007 for refurbishment and reopened in November 2010. The Other Place, a Black box theatre , was extended to become the temporary RSC Courtyard Theatre , opening in July 2006 and was the home of the RSC while the RST was being refurbished – its interior is similar to the interior of the refurbished RST. The Courtyard Theatre closed in 2015 and
9966-625: The South African War . This last gained him the greatest radical recognition of having his newspaper burned on the London Stock Exchange . Despite his radical views, Parke was a foremost trusted adviser to the Liberal Party in its dealings with the press. In 1889 Parke was involved in the notorious Cleveland Street scandal when a homosexual male brothel and house of assignation on Cleveland Street, London ,
10117-460: The Supreme Court of Canada rejected the actual malice test adopted in the US case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan . Once a claim has been made, the defendant may avail themselves of a defence of justification (the truth), fair comment, responsible communication, or privilege. Publishers of defamatory comments may also use the defence of innocent dissemination where they had no knowledge of the nature of
10268-545: The Tudor period : The Guild of the Holy Cross was abolished in 1547 under King Edward VI 's suppression of religious guilds , and the inhabitants of Stratford petitioned the Crown for a charter of incorporation as a borough , which they received in 1553. This allowed the formation a new Town Council which inherited the property and responsibilities of the abolished guild. The Charter of Incorporation refounded Stratford's school as
10419-595: The United Nations Human Rights Committee published their General comment No. 34 (CCPR/C/GC/34) – regarding Article 19 of the ICCPR. Paragraph 47 states: Defamation laws must be crafted with care to ensure that they comply with paragraph 3 [of Article 19 of the ICCPR], and that they do not serve, in practice, to stifle freedom of expression. All such laws, in particular penal defamation laws, should include such defences as
10570-401: The defence of truth and they should not be applied with regard to those forms of expression that are not, of their nature, subject to verification. At least with regard to comments about public figures , consideration should be given to avoiding penalizing or otherwise rendering unlawful untrue statements that have been published in error but without malice. In any event, a public interest in
10721-467: The 'newspaper men, among whom he seems to enjoy warm popularity and substantial esteem'. At the preliminary hearing at the Old Bailey Parke pleaded not guilty to the charge of libel. Asquith argued that 'the alleged libel was true in substance and in fact, and that its publication was for the public benefit'. Lionel Hart, for the prosecution, did not counter, but 'applied for the postponement of
10872-406: The 13th century and the end of the 16th century, with a survey of the town showing 217 houses belonged to the lord of the manor in 1590. Growth continued to be slow throughout the 17th century, with hearth tax returns showing that at most there were approximately 429 houses in the town by 1670. However, more substantial expansion began following several enclosure acts in the late 18th century, with
11023-574: The 15th and 16th centuries. As was malting , the processing of grain to turn it into malt . John Shakespeare , originally a farmer, had moved to Stratford in 1551, from the nearby village of Snitterfield and became a successful glover (glove maker) and businessman, and an official on the Town Council. He met and married Mary Arden a member of the local gentry in around 1557. Together they had eight children, including Stratford's most famous son William Shakespeare in 1564, believed to be at
11174-429: The 1981–2010 observation period. Stratford's warmest month is July, with an average maximum temperature of 22.8 °C (73 °F). January is the coldest month, with an average high of 7.4 °C (45 °F). The average summer maximum temperature is 22.7 °C (73 °F). The winter average high is 7.5 °C (45 °F). In the 2021 census Stratford had a population of 30,495, an increase from 27,894 in
11325-530: The Avon was up, or coming thither stood in jeopardy of life." In 1484, a new masonry arch bridge was built to replace it called Clopton Bridge , named after Hugh Clopton who paid for its construction, a wealthy local man who later became the Lord Mayor of London . The new bridge made it easier for people to trade within Stratford and for passing travellers to stay in the town. The medieval structures of local governance underwent significant changes during
11476-674: The Clore Learning Centre, the Royal Shakespeare Company's education and events venue. In 1988, Stratford-upon-Avon was the venue for the disastrous provincial try-out of the ill-fated musical Carrie , based on the Stephen King novel . The town is the setting of the 2018 BBC detective show Shakespeare & Hathaway: Private Investigators . Stratford ArtsHouse, previously the Civic Hall,
11627-483: The Dutch Caribbean) gives rise to a claim by way of " actio iniuriarum ". For liability under the actio iniuriarum , the general elements of delict must be present, but specific rules have been developed for each element. Causation, for example, is seldom in issue, and is assumed to be present. The elements of liability under the actio iniuriarum are as follows: Under the actio iniuriarum , harm consists in
11778-531: The High Court for any published statements alleged to defame a named or identifiable individual or individuals (under English law companies are legal persons, and allowed to bring suit for defamation ) in a manner that causes them loss in their trade or profession, or causes a reasonable person to think worse of them. In contemporary common law jurisdictions, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than
11929-766: The Northern Newspaper Company, and the Sheffield Independent Press. In 1904 he was a founding member of the Newspaper Proprietors' Association . Parke was a Justice of the Peace (JP), an Alderman and for six years Vice-Chairman of Warwickshire County Council , which he first joined as a County Councillor in 1917. He successfully worked his farm Moorlands at Kineton in Warwickshire , which led to his becoming
12080-563: The Ripper , who had just murdered Mary Ann Nichols , was a single killer. He was editor from 1891 to 1918. At the same time edited The Morning Leader , running both newspapers at the same time and working 'harder than any editor had done before or has done since'. Parke was one of the first editors to use stop press news, when he had racing results printed with a rubber stamp. He gained a reputation for supporting 'anti' movements: anti- vaccination , anti- vivisection , anti-protection, and anti
12231-533: The United States, criminal defamation is generally limited to the living. However, there are 7 states ( Idaho , Kansas , Louisiana , Nevada , North Dakota , Oklahoma , Utah ) that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) has also published a detailed database on criminal and civil defamation provisions in 55 countries, including all European countries, all member countries of
12382-596: The area specifically surrounding the Holy Trinity Church and the street of the Old Town. The Stratford area was settled during the Roman period as the area was crossed by a Roman road: archaeological remains of a small Roman town have been found, about 1 mile (1.6 km) northeast of Stratford town centre at Tiddington , now part of Stratford, which was occupied from the 1st to the 5th century AD. The remains of two further probable Roman settlements have been found within
12533-479: The authorities to conceal the involvement of a more highly placed personage; although this person was not named some believe that it was Prince Albert Victor , son of the Prince of Wales and grandson of Queen Victoria . Euston had not fled to Peru but was actually still in England when the article was brought to his attention and at once he filed a case against Parke for libel . Magistrate Sir James Vaughan issued
12684-662: The award-winning Tread The Boards Theatre Company. The venue is located next door to Cox's Yard and hosts an intimate 90-seat auditorium in the Grade 2 listed Attic space. The Waterside Theatre , which is not part of the Royal Shakespeare Theatre complex, re-opened in December 2004, then closed in September 2008. During this span, the theatre housed the Shakespearience visitor attraction. This has now been turned into
12835-503: The birthplace and burial place of playwright and poet William Shakespeare . It receives approximately 2.7 million visitors a year. The Royal Shakespeare Company resides in Stratford's Royal Shakespeare Theatre . The name is a combination of the Old English strǣt (from Latin stratum ), meaning 'street', ford , indicating a shallow part of a river or stream, allowing it to be crossed by walking or driving, and avon which
12986-480: The building of a temporary wooden theatre, known as the Tercentenary Theatre, which was built in a part of the brewer's large gardens on what is today the site of the new, and temporary, Courtyard Theatre . After three months the Tercentenary Theatre was dismantled, with the timber used for housebuilding purposes. In the early 1870s, Flower gave several acres of riverside land to the local council on
13137-435: The calumnies and injuries whenever its content is not correctly attributed to the corresponding source. Exceptions are expressions referring to subjects of public interest or that are not assertive (see Article 113). When calumny or injury are committed through the press, a possible extra penalty is the publication of the judicial decision at the expenses of the guilty (Article 114). He who passes to someone else information about
13288-412: The case told that the jury believed that "where a writing ... inveighs against mankind in general, or against a particular order of men, as for instance, men of the gown, this is no libel, but it must descend to particulars and individuals to make it libel." This jury believed that only individuals who believed they were specifically defamed had a claim to a libel case. Since the jury was unable to identify
13439-606: The country by elevating the fault element for public officials to actual malice – that is, public figures could win a libel suit only if they could demonstrate the publisher's "knowledge that the information was false" or that the information was published "with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not". Later the Supreme Court held that statements that are so ridiculous to be clearly not true are protected from libel claims, as are statements of opinion relating to matters of public concern that do not contain
13590-539: The crime, this report clearly shows a ruling based on group libel. Since laws restricting libel were accepted at this time because of its tendency to lead to a breach of peace, group libel laws were justified because they showed potential for an equal or perhaps greater risk of violence. For this reason, group libel cases are criminal even though most libel cases are civil torts. In a variety of Common Law jurisdictions, criminal laws prohibiting protests at funerals, sedition , false statements in connection with elections, and
13741-471: The criminal law should only be countenanced in the most serious of cases and imprisonment is never an appropriate penalty. It is impermissible for a State party to indict a person for criminal defamation but then not to proceed to trial expeditiously – such a practice has a chilling effect that may unduly restrict the exercise of freedom of expression of the person concerned and others. While each legal tradition approaches defamation differently, it
13892-575: The defence contradicted one another, and they could not accurately describe Euston. The last witness for the defence was John Saul , a male prostitute who previously had been involved in another homosexual scandal, this time at Dublin Castle . He also featured in a clandestinely published erotic novel The Sins of the Cities of the Plain , which claimed to be his autobiography . Delivering his testimony in
14043-538: The defences of absolute and qualified privilege, fair comment, and justification. While statutory law in the United Kingdom provides that, if the defendant is only successful in proving the truth of some of the several charges against him, the defence of justification might still be available if the charges not proved do not materially injure the reputation, there is no corresponding provision in India, though it
14194-473: The dissemination of which was regarded as particularly dangerous, and visited with very severe punishment, whether the matters contained in them were true or false. The Praetorian Edict, codified circa AD 130, declared that an action could be brought up for shouting at someone contrary to good morals: " qui, adversus bonos mores convicium cui fecisse cuiusve opera factum esse dicitur, quo adversus bonos mores convicium fieret, in eum iudicium dabo. " In this case,
14345-421: The doctrine in common law jurisdictions that only a false statement of fact (as opposed to opinion) can be defamatory. This doctrine gives rise to two separate but related defences: opinion and truth. Statements of opinion cannot be regarded as defamatory as they are inherently non-falsifiable. Where a statement has been shown to be one of fact rather than opinion, the most common defence in common law jurisdictions
14496-543: The exact people who were being defamed, there was no cause to identify the statements were a libel. Another early English group libel which has been frequently cited is King v. Osborne (1732). In this case, the defendant was on trial "for printing a libel reflecting upon the Portuguese Jews". The printing in question claimed that Jews who had arrived in London from Portugal burned a Jewish woman to death when she had
14647-421: The first and largest development by John Payton who developed land on the north side of the old town, creating several streets including John Street and Payton Street. In 1769, the actor David Garrick staged a major Shakespeare Jubilee over three days which saw the construction of a large rotunda and the influx of many visitors. This contributed to the growing phenomenon of Bardolatry which made Stratford
14798-430: The first few decades of the twenty first century, the phenomenon of strategic lawsuits against public participation has gained prominence in many common law jurisdictions outside Singapore as activists, journalists, and critics of corporations, political leaders, and public figures are increasingly targeted with vexatious defamation litigation. As a result, tort reform measures have been enacted in various jurisdictions;
14949-402: The following remedies in an action for defamation: compensatory damages; an injunction to stop further publication; a correction or a retraction; and in certain cases, punitive damages. Section 28 of the Act allows for punitive damages only when a there is a flagrant disregard of the rights of the person defamed. As the law assumes that an individual suffers loss if a statement is defamatory, there
15100-483: The foundations of Stratford's transformation from a village to a town, make the town of Stratford over 800 years old, the town celebrated its 800th anniversary in 1996. John of Coutances' plans to develop Stratford into a town meant Stratford became a place of work for tradesmen and merchants. By 1252 the town had approximately 240 burgages (town rental properties owned by a king or lord ), as well as shops, stalls and other buildings. Stratford's tradesmen established
15251-533: The freedom of expression provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights. One notable case was Lingens v. Austria (1986). According to the Criminal Code of Albania , defamation is a crime. Slandering in the knowledge of falsity is subject to fines of from 40 000 ALL (c. $ 350) to one million ALL (c. $ 8350 ). If the slandering occurs in public or damages multiple people, the fine
15402-531: The grave of his wife at the parish church of St Peter and St Paul in Butlers Marston . He left an estate valued at £34625 8s. 1d. Stratford-upon-Avon Stratford-upon-Avon ( /- ˈ eɪ v ən / ), commonly known as just Stratford , is a market town and civil parish in the Stratford-on-Avon district , in the county of Warwickshire , in the West Midlands region of England. It
15553-606: The house now known as Shakespeare's Birthplace . Stratford was the centre of considerable activity and some fighting during the English Civil War . Being located at the junction of several main roads, it was strategically important for both the Royalist and Parliamentarian armies. Due to its close proximity to the Parliamentarian stronghold of Warwick , Stratford remained under Parliamentarian control for
15704-498: The infringement of a personality right, either "corpus", "dignitas", or "fama". Dignitas is a generic term meaning 'worthiness, dignity, self-respect', and comprises related concerns like mental tranquillity and privacy. Because it is such a wide concept, its infringement must be serious. Not every insult is humiliating; one must prove contumelia . This includes insult ( iniuria in the narrow sense), adultery, loss of consortium, alienation of affection, breach of promise (but only in
15855-775: The late 13th century. Many of the town's earliest and most important buildings are located along what is known as Stratford's Historic Spine , which was once the main route from the town centre to the parish church. The route of the Historic Spine begins at Shakespeare's Birthplace in Henley Street. It continues through Henley Street to the top end of Bridge Street and into the High Street where many Elizabethan buildings are located, including Harvard House . The route carries on through Chapel Street where Nash's House and New Place are sited. Opposite New Place
16006-474: The like, then it is slander. In contrast, libel encompasses defamation by written or printed words, pictures, or in any form other than spoken words or gestures. The law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel. The highest award in an American defamation case, at US$ 222.7 million was rendered in 1997 against Dow Jones in favour of MMAR Group Inc; however,
16157-517: The local cinema . An architectural competition was arranged to elicit designs for a new theatre, with the winner, English architect Elisabeth Scott , creating the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The new theatre, adjoining what was left of the old theatre, was opened by the then Prince of Wales , later Edward VIII , in 1932. The new theatre had many illustrious artistic directors, including the actor Anthony Quayle . Sir Peter Hall
16308-439: The majority of the conflict, although it was only directly occupied by troops for sporadic intervals. In February 1643, Stratford was occupied by Royalist forces under Colonel Wagstaffe . It was recaptured by Parliamentarians under Lord Brooke on 25 February after an engagement on the nearby road to Warwick. Having secured the town, Brooke returned to Warwick. In one notable incident in February 1643, Stratford's Market Hall, at
16459-685: The male prostitutes involved had received light sentences with regard to their offence. His journalistic curiosity aroused, Parke discovered that the young male prostitutes had named leading members of the aristocracy as their patrons. Parke ran the story on 28 September 1889 hinting at their involvement but refrained from naming names. On 16 November 1889 he published a further piece which named Henry James FitzRoy, Earl of Euston , in "an indescribably loathsome scandal in Cleveland Street". Parke also alleged that Euston may have fled to Peru to avoid prosecution and that he had been permitted to escape by
16610-443: The morning of 25 November 1889. Vaughan set the bail at two securities of £50 each, which Parke posted. Parke was widely regarded by his fellow journalists as the hero of the hour, victimised for telling the truth. With his 'pale, earnest, and intellectual face', The Illustrated Police News described him as looking 'more like a hard-working student than the defendant in a newspaper libel case', whilst also noting his popularity with
16761-514: The offence was constituted by the unnecessary act of shouting. According to Ulpian , not all shouting was actionable. Drawing on the argument of Labeo , he asserted that the offence consisted in shouting contrary to the morals of the city (" adversus bonos mores huius civitatis ") something apt to bring in disrepute or contempt (" quae... ad infamiam vel invidiam alicuius spectaret ") the person exposed thereto. Any act apt to bring another person into disrepute gave rise to an actio injurarum . In such
16912-403: The offense lay in the content of the imputation, not in the manner of its publication. The truth was therefore a sufficient defense, for no man had a right to demand legal protection for a false reputation. In Anglo-Saxon England , whose legal tradition is the predecessor of contemporary common law jurisdictions, slander was punished by cutting out the tongue. Historically, while defamation of
17063-433: The person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander , and defamation in other media such as printed words or images, called libel . The fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, such as spoken words or sounds, sign language, gestures or
17214-448: The private law is derived from French civil law). In common law provinces and territories, defamation covers any communication that tends to lower the esteem of the subject in the minds of ordinary members of the public. Probably true statements are not excluded, nor are political opinions. Intent is always presumed, and it is not necessary to prove that the defendant intended to defame. In Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto (1995),
17365-431: The recommendation of John Richard Robinson , editor manager of The Daily News , he accepted from T. P. O'Connor the position of sub-editor of the newly formed The Star . He soon impressed O'Connor with his 'keenness, tremendous flair for news, and the capacity to work twenty four hours a day if necessary'. Later in 1888 he was appointed deputy editor of The Star . In the 31 August 1888 edition he suggested that Jack
17516-505: The reputation or rights of others. Additionally, restrictions of freedom of expression and other rights guaranteed by international human rights laws (including the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)) and by the constitutions of a variety of countries are subject to some variation of the three-part test recognised by the United Nations Human Rights Committee which requires that limitations be: 1) "provided by law that
17667-458: The right to a legal remedy for defamation, this right must be balanced with the equally protected right to freedom of opinion and expression. In general, ensuring that domestic defamation law adequately balances individuals' right to protect their reputation with freedom of expression and of the press entails: In most of Europe, article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights permits restrictions on freedom of speech when necessary to protect
17818-467: The river crossing, which was better positioned for trade. Stratford, then referred to as strete ford , remained a village until the late 12th century when it was developed into a town by lord of the manor , Bishop John of Coutances . Coutances laid out a new town plan in 1196 around 1 ⁄ 2 mile (0.80 km) north of the original settlement, based on a grid system to expand Stratford and allow people to rent property in order to trade within
17969-483: The site of the current Town Hall , was destroyed after three barrels of gunpowder which were being stored there blew up. From March 1644, until part of the following year, Stratford appears to have been continuously occupied by Parliamentarian troops. There was one further Royalist raid in April 1645. A number of famous people passed through Stratford during the conflict: In April 1643, Prince Rupert passed through, he
18120-490: The state rather than defamation suits; thus, for most of American history, the Supreme Court did not interpret the First Amendment as applying to libel cases involving media defendants. This left libel laws, based upon the traditional common law of defamation inherited from the English legal system, mixed across the states. The 1964 case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan dramatically altered the nature of libel law in
18271-533: The statement is true or is a statement of fact, it does not actually harm someone's reputation. It is also necessary in these cases to show that there is a well-founded public interest in the specific information being widely known, and this may be the case even for public figures . Public interest is generally not "what the public is interested in", but rather "what is in the interest of the public". Other defences recognised in one or more common law jurisdictions include: Media liability or defamation insurance
18422-451: The statement was defamatory. In an action for defamation per se , the law recognises that certain false statements are so damaging that they create a presumption of injury to the plaintiff's reputation, allowing a defamation case to proceed to verdict with no actual proof of damages. Although laws vary by state, and not all jurisdictions recognise defamation per se , there are four general categories of false statement that typically support
18573-498: The statement would be considered defamatory per se if false, if the defendant establishes that it is in fact true, an action for defamation per se cannot survive. The conception of what type of allegation may support an action for defamation per se can evolve with public policy. For example, in May 2012 an appeals court in New York, citing changes in public policy with regard to homosexuality , ruled that describing someone as gay
18724-399: The statement, it was not brought to their attention, and they were not negligent. Common law jurisdictions vary as to whether they permit corporate plaintiffs in defamation actions. Under contemporary Australian law, private corporations are denied the right to sue for defamation, with an exception for small businesses (corporations with less than 10 employees and no subsidiaries); this rule
18875-417: The subject matter of the criticism should be recognized as a defence. Care should be taken by States parties to avoid excessively punitive measures and penalties. Where relevant, States parties should place reasonable limits on the requirement for a defendant to reimburse the expenses of the successful party. States parties should consider the decriminalization of defamation and, in any case, the application of
19026-458: The third Bishop of Worcester (693–714). The monastery was likely destroyed by Viking invaders in 1015. The land remained in the ownership of the Bishops of Worcester until the 16th century. The area around Holy Trinity Church is still known as Old Town as it was the original area of settlement around the monastery. The focus of the settlement at Stratford was later moved north, closer to
19177-541: The town include Bishopton, Bridge Town, Clopton and Old Town. Stratford has a temperate maritime climate , as is usual for the British Isles , meaning extremes of heat and cold are rare. Sunshine hours are low to moderate, with an average of 1,512.3 hours of sunshine annually. Rainfall is spread evenly throughout the year. There is an annual average of 614.8 mm (24 in), with over 1 millimetre (0.039 inches) falling on 114.1 rain days per year, according to
19328-410: The town. Coutances granted his new tenants the right to rent property and transmit it at death. This was called burgage tenure. Each development plot or "burgage" consisted of around 0.25 acres (0.10 hectares). A charter was granted to Stratford by King Richard I in 1196 which allowed a weekly market to be held in the town, giving it its status as a market town . These two charters, which formed
19479-464: The trial', because Parke's plea had only just been submitted. The judge in the case agreed, despite Parke being 'ready and anxious to meet the charge', and the case was set to 'stand over until the next sessions'. Parke was released on bail. At the subsequent trial before judge Sir Henry Hawkins , for which Parke was remanded in custody despite having offered four sureties of £500 each, In court Euston admitted that as he had been passing along Piccadilly
19630-459: The truth of the remaining charges". Similarly, the American doctrine of substantial truth provides that a statement is not defamatory if it has "slight inaccuracies of expression" but is otherwise true. Since a statement can only be defamatory if it harms another person's reputation, another defence tied to the ability of a statement to be defamatory is to demonstrate that, regardless of whether
19781-413: The truthfulness of the statement; where the plaintiff is a celebrity or public official, they must additionally prove that the statement was made with actual malice (i.e. the intent to do harm or with reckless disregard for the truth). A series of court rulings led by New York Times Co. v. Sullivan , 376 U.S. 254 (1964) established that for a public official (or other legitimate public figure) to win
19932-622: The two branches and open the current Stratford-upon-Avon railway station, which was opened in July 1861. Both branches later came under the control of the Great Western Railway . The connection of Stratford to the growing national railway network, helped enable the development of the modern tourism industry. Stratford did not become a major centre of industry during the Industrial Revolution , but some industries did grow up locally: Edward Fordham Flower opened
20083-405: The understanding that a permanent theatre be built in honour of Shakespeare's memory, and by 1879 the first Shakespeare Memorial Theatre had been completed. It proved to be a huge success, and by the early 20th century it was effectively being run by the actor/manager Frank Benson . The theatre burned down in 1926, with the then artistic director, William Bridges-Adams , moving all productions to
20234-543: The use of profanity in public, are also often used in contexts similar to criminal libel actions. The boundaries of a court's power to hold individuals in "contempt of court" for what amounts to alleged defamatory statements about judges or the court process by attorneys or other people involved in court cases is also not well established in many common law countries. While defamation torts are less controversial as they ostensibly involve plaintiffs seeking to protect their right to dignity and their reputation, criminal defamation
20385-607: The verdict was dismissed in 1999 amid allegations that MMAR failed to disclose audiotapes made by its employees. In common law jurisdictions, civil lawsuits alleging defamation have frequently been used by both private businesses and governments to suppress and censor criticism. A notable example of such lawsuits being used to suppress political criticism of a government is the use of defamation claims by politicians in Singapore's ruling People's Action Party to harass and suppress opposition leaders such as J. B. Jeyaretnam . Over
20536-452: The world they are filed, since a compainant can look for a more favorable jurisdiction to file their claim. Investigative journalism usually requires higher insurance premiums, with some plans not covering investigative work altogether. Many common law jurisdictions recognise that some categories of statements are considered to be defamatory per se , such that people making a defamation claim for these statements do not need to prove that
20687-559: The wrongful conduct of the defender. For such reparation to be offered, however, the non-patrimonial interest must be deliberately affronted: negligent interference with a non-patrimonial interest will not be sufficient to generate liability. An actio iniuriarum requires that the conduct of the defender be 'contumelious' —that is, it must show such hubristic disregard of the pursuer's recognised personality interest that an intention to affront ( animus iniuriandi ) might be imputed. In addition to tort law, many jurisdictions treat defamation as
20838-491: Was The Falcon Hotel (now Hotel Indigo), at the corner of Scholars Lane. It is a timber-framed house with nearly 100-ft frontage to the street and dating perhaps from the end of the 15th century. The Historic Spine continues along Church Street where the Guild buildings are located dating back to the 15th century, as well as 18th- and 19th-century properties. The route then finishes in the Old Town, which includes Hall's Croft and
20989-454: Was a temporary wooden affair built in 1769 by the actor David Garrick for his Shakespeare Jubilee celebrations of that year to mark William Shakespeare's birthday. The theatre, built not far from the site of the present Royal Shakespeare Theatre , was almost washed away in two days of torrential rain that resulted in terrible flooding. To celebrate the 300th anniversary of Shakespeare's birth in 1864, brewer Charles Edward Flower instigated
21140-488: Was abandoned in 1875. It was restored as a navigation by volunteers almost a century later in 1974. Victorian Stratford's growth as a tourist destination was further enhanced by Edward Fordham Flower and his son Charles Edward Flower , owners of a local brewery business, and important figures in local affairs: Through their campaigning and fundraising efforts, the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre
21291-411: Was aimed at giving sufficient scope for the discussion of a man's character, while it protected him from needless insult and pain. The remedy for verbal defamation was long confined to a civil action for a monetary penalty, which was estimated according to the significance of the case, and which, although punitive in its character, doubtless included practically the element of compensation. But a new remedy
21442-587: Was appointed artistic director (designate) in 1959, and formed the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) in 1961. The Royal Shakespeare Company also runs two smaller theatres, the Swan Theatre , which was created in the 1980s out of the shell of the remains of the original Memorial Theatre and is modelled on an Elizabethan theatre , quickly becoming one of the finest acting spaces in the United Kingdom, and The Other Place theatre. Along with
21593-581: Was at Stratford again in July, where he met the Queen Henrietta Maria , who was travelling through the Midlands , and she was the guest of honour of Susanna Hall , William Shakespeare's daughter, at New Place . Oliver Cromwell was at Stratford in December 1646, and again in 1651, before the Battle of Worcester . Despite Stratford's increase in trade, it barely grew between the middle of
21744-542: Was editor of the financial newspaper Stock Exchange on Fleet Street , but not liking the work in 1884 he joined the staff of the Fleet Street evening paper The Echo . In the same year he married Sarah Elizabeth Blain (1863-1937). Herself a journalist, she after wrote under the pen name 'Mrs. Ernest Parke'. On the marriage certificate his occupation was recorded as 'Journalist'. Their sons were: Fenning Matthew Parke (1885-1928) and Hall Parke (1905-1985). In 1888, on
21895-631: Was false, the court ruled in its favour, saying that libel of a public official requires proof of actual malice , which was defined as a "knowing or reckless disregard for the truth". Many jurisdictions within the Commonwealth (e.g. Singapore, Ontario, and the United Kingdom ) have enacted legislation to: Libel law in England and Wales was overhauled even further by the Defamation Act 2013 . Defamation in Indian tort law largely resembles that of England and Wales . Indian courts have endorsed
22046-599: Was introduced by the state of New South Wales in 2003, and then adopted nationwide in 2006. By contrast, Canadian law grants private corporations substantially the same right to sue for defamation as individuals possess. Since 2013, English law charts a middle course, allowing private corporations to sue for defamation, but requiring them to prove that the defamation caused both serious harm and serious financial loss, which individual plaintiffs are not required to demonstrate. Defamation in jurisdictions applying Roman Dutch law (i.e. most of Southern Africa, Indonesia, Suriname, and
22197-433: Was introduced with the extension of the criminal law, under which many kinds of defamation were punished with great severity. At the same time increased importance attached to the publication of defamatory books and writings, the libri or libelli famosi , from which is derived the modern use of the word libel ; and under the later emperors the latter term came to be specially applied to anonymous accusations or pasquils ,
22348-457: Was not an issue of defamation. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). The Supreme Court of the United States overruled a state court in Alabama that had found The New York Times guilty of libel for printing an advertisement that criticised Alabama officials for mistreating student civil rights activists. Even though some of what The Times printed
22499-475: Was opened on the banks of the Avon in 1879. The original theatre was destroyed by fire in 1926. Its replacement was opened in 1932, designed by Elisabeth Scott , making it the first important building by a woman architect erected in Britain. In 1974, the old borough of Stratford was abolished and merged into the much larger Stratford-on-Avon District , The area of the borough became a successor parish with
22650-685: Was replaced by The Other Place in March 2016, which returned as a 200-seat studio theatre within the steel extension in which the Courtyard Theatre was located. Stratford is home to The Bear Pit Theatre which was founded in 2008 as a voluntary organisation. It has 100 seats and is part of the Little Theatre Guild . The Attic Theatre is Stratford-upon-Avon's premiere fringe theatre . Established by husband-and-wife team John-Robert and Catherine Partridge and in 2009, who also run
22801-497: Was uncovered by the police. At first the newspapers showed little interest in the story, which would have been quickly forgotten if not for Parke. As editor of the politically radical weekly The North London Press , Parke was first informed of police involvement in Cleveland Street when a reporter informed him of the conviction of the 18 year-old Post Office clerk and male prostitute, Henry Newlove. Parke began to ask why
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