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66-645: Traditionally Northern Estonia has had a large Estonian majority and much smaller Swedish and Finnish minority but that changed during the Soviet occupation and annexation of Estonia. Region was deliberately colonized and by that Russified by Soviet authorities more than other regions of Estonia. Some towns and villages like Narva, Jõhvi, Kohtla-Järve, Sillamäe, Maardu and Paldiski experienced almost total repopulation by Russians. New city districts that were meant to accommodate colonizers were built in Tallinn, most of which are

132-983: A West Germanic language spoken in the province of Limburg in the Netherlands , Belgium and neighboring regions of Germany . It is distinct from German and Dutch, but originates from areas near where both are spoken. Roughly 215 million Europeans (primarily in Southern and Western Europe) are native speakers of Romance languages , the largest groups including: French ( c. 72 million), Italian ( c. 65 million), Spanish ( c. 40 million), Romanian ( c. 24 million), Portuguese ( c. 10 million), Catalan ( c. 7 million), Sicilian ( c. 5 million, also subsumed under Italian), Venetian ( c. 4 million), Galician ( c. 2 million), Sardinian ( c. 1 million), Occitan ( c. 500,000), besides numerous smaller communities. The Romance languages evolved from varieties of Vulgar Latin spoken in

198-654: A high sharing of IBD ( identity-by-descent ) segments with other studied Balto-Finnic groups (Finns, Karelians and Vepsians ) and the Sami people, as well as with the Polish people. Languages of Europe There are over 250 languages indigenous to Europe , and most belong to the Indo-European language family . Out of a total European population of 744 million as of 2018, some 94% are native speakers of an Indo-European language. The three largest phyla of

264-642: A large subfamily of Indo-European, has a relatively small number of languages in Europe, and a small number of speakers ( Romani , c. 1.5 million). However, a number of Indo-Aryan languages not native to Europe are spoken in Europe today. Of the approximately 45 million Europeans speaking non-Indo-European languages, most speak languages within either the Uralic or Turkic families. Still smaller groups — such as Basque ( language isolate ), Semitic languages ( Maltese , c. 0.5 million), and various languages of

330-578: A lingua franca to peoples in the range of the future nation until the consolidation and unification phases. If the nation becomes internationally influential, its language may become a lingua franca among nations that speak their own national languages. Europe has had no lingua franca ranging over its entire territory spoken by all or most of its populations during any historical period. Some linguae francae of past and present over some of its regions for some of its populations are: Historical attitudes towards linguistic diversity are illustrated by two French laws:

396-551: A small part of central Sweden). English has a long history of contact with Scandinavian languages, given the immigration of Scandinavians early in the history of Britain, and shares various features with the Scandinavian languages. Even so, especially Dutch and Swedish, but also Danish and Norwegian, have strong vocabulary connections to the German language . Limburgish (also called Limburgan, Limburgian, or Limburgic) Is

462-442: A state level, whereas others continue to be actively suppressed. Though "there is a widespread belief—among both Deaf people and sign language linguists—that there are sign language families," the actual relationship between sign languages is difficult to ascertain. Concepts and methods used in historical linguistics to describe language families for written and spoken languages are not easily mapped onto signed languages. Some of

528-591: A subgroup of the larger Uralic family of languages , which also includes e.g. the Sami languages . These languages are markedly different from most other native languages spoken in Europe , most of which have been assigned to the Indo-European family of languages . Estonians can also be classified into subgroups according to dialects (e.g. Võros , Setos ), although such divisions have become less pronounced due to internal migration and rapid urbanisation in Estonia in

594-562: Is an educational standard defining "the competencies necessary for communication" and related knowledge for the benefit of educators in setting up educational programs. In a 2005 independent survey requested by the EU's Directorate-General for Education and Culture regarding the extent to which major European languages were spoken in member states. The results were published in a 2006 document, "Europeans and Their Languages", or "Eurobarometer 243". In this study, statistically relevant samples of

660-797: Is associated with being Finno-Ugric and their close relationship with the Finnish people and does not exclude being Baltic. In Estonian foreign ministry reports from the early 2000s Nordic identity was preferred over Baltic one. After the Treaty of Tartu (1920) recognised Estonia's 1918 independence from Russia, ethnic Estonians residing in Russia gained the option of opting for Estonian citizenship (those who opted were called optandid – 'optants') and returning to their fatherland. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920. In sum, 37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia (1920–1923). During

726-526: Is commonly carried by modern Uralic-speaking groups but also other North Eurasians, including Estonians' Baltic-speaking neighbors Latvians and Lithuanians . Compared to the Balts, Estonians have been noticed to have differences in allelic variances of N1c haplotypes, showing more similarity with other Finno-Ugric-speakers. When looking at maternal lineages , nearly half (45 %) of the Estonians have

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792-460: Is divided into three subgroups: Uralic language family is native to northern Eurasia. Finnic languages include Finnish ( c. 5 million) and Estonian ( c. 1 million), as well as smaller languages such as Kven ( c. 8,000). Other languages of the Finno-Permic branch of the family include e.g. Mari (c. 400,000), and the Sami languages ( c. 30,000). The Ugric branch of

858-466: Is found also in the Balts, Finns and Mordvins , for example. Uralic peoples typically carry a Siberian -related component, which is also present in Estonians and makes up about five percent of their ancestry on average. Although they have a smaller share of it than other Balto-Finns, it is one factor that distinguishes them from the Balts. Estonians can also be modelled to have considerably more Finnish-like ancestry than Baltic-speakers. Estonians have

924-603: Is intended to include any language variety with an ISO 639 code. However, it omits sign languages. Because the ISO-639-2 and ISO-639-3 codes have different definitions, this means that some communities of speakers may be listed more than once. For instance, speakers of Bavarian are listed both under "Bavarian" (ISO-639-3 code bar ) as well as under "German" (ISO-639-2 code de ). There are various definitions of Europe , which may or may not include all or parts of Turkey, Cyprus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. For convenience,

990-518: Is now extinct; the only known surviving East Germanic texts are written in the Gothic language . West Germanic is divided into Anglo-Frisian (including English ), Low German , Low Franconian (including Dutch ) and High German (including Standard German ). The Anglo-Frisian language family is now mostly represented by English (Anglic) , descended from the Old English language spoken by

1056-791: The Italo-Dalmatian languages (sometimes grouped with Eastern Romance), including the Tuscan-derived Italian and numerous local Romance languages in Italy as well as Dalmatian , and the Western Romance languages . The Western Romance languages in turn separate into the Gallo-Romance languages , including Langues d'oïl such as French , the Francoprovencalic languages Arpitan and Faetar ,

1122-528: The Anglo-Saxons : The Frisian languages are spoken by about 400,000 (as of 2015 ) Frisians , who live on the southern coast of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany . These languages include West Frisian , East Frisian (of which the only surviving dialect is Saterlandic ) and North Frisian . Dutch is spoken throughout the Netherlands , the northern half of Belgium , as well as

1188-854: The Castilian languages . Slavic languages are spoken in large areas of Southern, Central and Eastern Europe . An estimated 315 million people speak a Slavic language, the largest groups being Russian ( c. 110 million in European Russia and adjacent parts of Eastern Europe, Russian forming the largest linguistic community in Europe), Polish ( c. 40 million ), Ukrainian ( c. 33 million ), Serbo-Croatian ( c. 18 million ), Czech ( c. 11 million ), Bulgarian ( c. 8 million ), Slovak ( c. 5 million ), Belarusian (c. 3.7 million ), Slovene ( c. 2.3 million ) and Macedonian ( c. 1.6 million ). Phylogenetically, Slavic

1254-699: The Council of Europe , founded in 1949, which affirms the right of minority language speakers to use their language fully and freely. The Council of Europe is committed to protecting linguistic diversity. Currently all European countries except France , Andorra and Turkey have signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities , while Greece , Iceland and Luxembourg have signed it, but have not ratified it; this framework entered into force in 1998. Another European treaty,

1320-546: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , was adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe : it entered into force in 1998, and while it is legally binding for 24 countries, France , Iceland , Italy , North Macedonia , Moldova and Russia have chosen to sign without ratifying the convention. The main scripts used in Europe today are the Latin and Cyrillic . The Greek alphabet

1386-537: The Iron Age at the latest. This lead into the formation of Baltic Finnic peoples , who would later become such groups as Estonians and Finns . The oldest known endonym of the Estonians is maarahvas , literally meaning "land people" or "country folk". It was used until the mid-19th century, when it was gradually replaced by Eesti rahvas "Estonian people" during the Estonian national awakening . Eesti ,

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1452-778: The Latin alphabet used in Europe: Antiqua and Fraktur . Fraktur was used most for German, Estonian, Latvian, Norwegian and Danish whereas Antiqua was used for Italian, Spanish, French, Polish, Portuguese, English, Romanian, Swedish and Finnish. The Fraktur variant was banned by Hitler in 1941, having been described as " Schwabacher Jewish letters". Other scripts have historically been in use in Europe, including Phoenician, from which modern Latin letters descend, Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs on Egyptian artefacts traded during Antiquity, various runic systems used in Northern Europe preceding Christianisation, and Arabic during

1518-518: The Nord-Pas de Calais region of France . The traditional dialects of the Lower Rhine region of Germany are linguistically more closely related to Dutch than to modern German. In Belgian and French contexts, Dutch is sometimes referred to as Flemish . Dutch dialects are numerous and varied. German is spoken throughout Germany , Austria , Liechtenstein , much of Switzerland (including

1584-753: The Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), which said that every document in France should be written in French (neither in Latin nor in Occitan) and the Loi Toubon (1994), which aimed to eliminate anglicisms from official documents. States and populations within a state have often resorted to war to settle their differences. There have been attempts to prevent such hostilities: two such initiatives were promoted by

1650-803: The Rhaeto-Romance languages , and the Gallo-Italic languages ; the Occitano-Romance languages , grouped with either Gallo-Romance or East Iberian, including Occitanic languages such as Occitan and Gardiol , and Catalan ; Aragonese , grouped in with either Occitano-Romance or West Iberian, and finally the West Iberian languages , including the Astur-Leonese languages , the Galician-Portuguese languages , and

1716-515: The Votic language ) sometimes also reaches Ida-Viru County. Estonians Estonians or Estonian people ( Estonian : eestlased ) are a Baltic Finnic ethnic group who speak the Estonian language . Their nation state is Estonia . The Estonian language is spoken as the first language by the vast majority of Estonians; it is closely related to other Finnic languages , e.g. Finnish , Karelian and Livonian . The Finnic languages are

1782-634: The national language , and a number of language academies were established: 1582 Accademia della Crusca in Florence, 1617 Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft in Weimar, 1635 Académie française in Paris, 1713 Real Academia Española in Madrid. Language became increasingly linked to nation as opposed to culture, and was also used to promote religious and ethnic identity: e.g. different Bible translations in

1848-462: The 1820s. The ruling elites had remained predominantly German in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. Garlieb Merkel (1769–1850), a Baltic-German Estophile , became the first author to treat the Estonians as a nationality equal to others; he became a source of inspiration for the Estonian national movement, modelled on Baltic German cultural world before the middle of

1914-545: The 1880s, their view of Imperial Russia remained positive. Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries stemming from important cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Scandinavian and German rule and settlement. According to a poll done in 2013, about half of the young Estonians considered themselves Nordic , and about the same number viewed Baltic identity as important. The Nordic identity among Estonians can ovelap with other identities, as it

1980-451: The 19th century. However, in the middle of the century, the Estonians became more ambitious and started leaning toward the Finns as a successful model of national movement and, to some extent, toward the neighbouring Latvian national movement . By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony. Before the attempts at Russification in

2046-752: The 20th century. There are approximately 1 million ethnic Estonians worldwide, with the vast majority of them residing in their native Estonia. Estonian diaspora communities formed primarily in Finland, the United States, Sweden, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, soon after the ice from the Baltic Ice Lake had melted. Living in the same area for more than 5,000 years would put Estonians' ancestors among Europe's oldest permanent inhabitants. On

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2112-637: The Caucasus — account for less than 1% of the European population among them. Immigration has added sizeable communities of speakers of African and Asian languages, amounting to about 4% of the population, with Arabic being the most widely spoken of them. Five languages have more than 50 million native speakers in Europe: Russian , German , French , Italian , and English . Russian is the most-spoken native language in Europe, and English has

2178-493: The Indo-European language family in Europe are Romance , Germanic , and Slavic ; they have more than 200 million speakers each, and together account for close to 90% of Europeans. Smaller phyla of Indo-European found in Europe include Hellenic ( Greek , c. 13 million), Baltic ( c. 4.5 million), Albanian ( c. 7.5 million), Celtic ( c. 4 million), and Armenian ( c. 4 million). Indo-Aryan , though

2244-825: The biggest city districts to this day because Estonia was only partially decolonized after regaining of independence in 1991. Estonians made up about 80% of Tallinn's population before World War II, but make up only 49% in 2019. In 2009, Estonians made up about 55,2% of Tallinn's population. The all time smallest share occurred in 1988 when only 47% of Tallinners were ethnic Estonians, not far from 2019. Tallinners made up about 29,7% of Estonia's population in 2009. In 2009, Tallinn's ethnic Estonian residents made up 23,9% (219,900) of all ethnic Estonians residing in Estonia. In 2009, Tallinn's non-Estonian residents, mainly Russians, made up 42,7% (178,694) of all non-Estonians residing in Estonia. The positive birth rate of ethnic Estonians and non-positive birth rate of non-Estonians should have increased

2310-522: The chancellery of Meissen in Saxony, Middle German, and the chancellery of Prague in Bohemia ("Common German")). But several other nations also began to develop a standard variety in the 16th century. Europe has had a number of languages that were considered linguae francae over some ranges for some periods according to some historians. Typically in the rise of a national language the new language becomes

2376-508: The current understandings of sign language relationships, however, provide some reasonable estimates about potential sign language families: In the Middle Ages the two most important defining elements of Europe were Christianitas and Latinitas . The earliest dictionaries were glossaries: more or less structured lists of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields). The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) Abrogans

2442-629: The era of the Ottoman Empire. Hungarian rovás was used by the Hungarian people in the early Middle Ages, but it was gradually replaced with the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet when Hungary became a kingdom, though it was revived in the 20th century and has certain marginal, but growing area of usage since then. The European Union (as of 2021) had 27 member states accounting for a population of 447 million, or about 60% of

2508-421: The first known book in Estonian, was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles. Although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the Estonian national awakening , some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development. By the 18th century the self-denomination eestlane spread among Estonians along with

2574-629: The haplogroup H . About one in four (24.2 %) carry the haplogroup U , and the majority of them belong to its subclade U5 . Autosomally Estonians are close with Latvians and Lithuanians. However, they are shifted towards the Finns , who are isolated from most European populations. Northeastern Estonians are particularly close to Finns, while Southeastern Estonians are close to the Balts; other Estonians plot between these two extremes. Estonians have high steppe -like admixture, and less farmer -related and more hunter-gatherer -related admixture than Western and Central Europeans. The same pattern

2640-686: The language family is represented in Europe by the Hungarian language ( c. 13 million), historically introduced with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin of the 9th century. The Samoyedic Nenets language is spoken in Nenets Autonomous Okrug of Russia, located in the far northeastern corner of Europe (as delimited by the Ural Mountains ). Several dozen manual languages exist across Europe, with

2706-437: The languages and associated statistics for all five of these countries are grouped together on this page, as they are usually presented at a national, rather than subnational, level. Recent (post–1945) immigration to Europe introduced substantial communities of speakers of non-European languages. The largest such communities include Arabic speakers (see Arabs in Europe ) and Turkish speakers (beyond European Turkey and

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2772-499: The largest number of speakers in total, including some 200 million speakers of English as a second or foreign language . (See English language in Europe .) The Indo-European language family is descended from Proto-Indo-European , which is believed to have been spoken thousands of years ago. Early speakers of Indo-European daughter languages most likely expanded into Europe with the incipient Bronze Age , around 4,000 years ago ( Bell-Beaker culture ). The Germanic languages make up

2838-459: The member state may communicate with the EU in any of the designated languages, and view "EU regulations and other legislative documents" in that language. The European Union and the Council of Europe have been collaborating in education of member populations in languages for "the promotion of plurilingualism" among EU member states. The joint document, " Common European Framework of Reference for Languages : Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR)",

2904-579: The modern endonym of Estonia, is thought to have similar origins to Aesti , the name used by the Germanic peoples for the neighbouring people living northeast of the mouth of the Vistula . The Roman historian Tacitus in 98 CE was the first to mention the " Aesti " in writing. In Old Norse , the land south of the Gulf of Finland was called Eistland and the people eistr . The Wanradt–Koell Catechism ,

2970-589: The most widespread sign language family being the Francosign languages , with its languages found in countries from Iberia to the Balkans and the Baltics . Accurate historical information of sign and tactile languages is difficult to come by, with folk histories noting the existence signing communities across Europe hundreds of years ago. British Sign Language (BSL) and French Sign Language (LSF) are probably

3036-942: The northeast areas bordering on Germany and Austria), northern Italy ( South Tyrol ), Luxembourg , the East Cantons of Belgium and the Alsace and Lorraine regions of France . There are several groups of German dialects: Low German is spoken in various regions throughout Northern Germany and the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands. It is an official language in Germany . It may be separated into West Low German and East Low German . The North Germanic languages are spoken in Nordic countries and include Swedish ( Sweden and parts of Finland ), Danish ( Denmark ), Norwegian ( Norway ), Icelandic ( Iceland ), Faroese ( Faroe Islands ), and Elfdalian (in

3102-573: The older maarahvas . Anton thor Helle 's translation of the Bible into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the century more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including Friedrich Robert Faehlmann (1798–1850), Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801–1822) and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882), appeared in

3168-479: The oldest confirmed, continuously used sign languages. Alongside German Sign Language (DGS) according to Ethnologue , these three have the most numbers of signers, though very few institutions take appropriate statistics on contemporary signing populations, making legitimate data hard to find. Notably, few European sign languages have overt connections with the local majority/oral languages, aside from standard language contact and borrowing , meaning grammatically

3234-692: The other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that Finno-Ugric speakers arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, perhaps during the Early Bronze Age (ca. 1800 BCE). It has also been argued that Western Uralic tribes reached Fennoscandia first, leading into the development of the Sámi peoples , and arrived in the Baltic region later in the Bronze Age or the transition to

3300-646: The period of Tsarist rule of Estonia (1710-1917), over 100,000 Estonians migrated to the neighbouring areas of the Russian Empire , especially to the then capital city Saint Petersburg . According to the 1897 census, 6,852 native Estonian-speakers also lived in the Russian Partition of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , in what is now Poland , Lithuania , Belarus , Latvia and western Ukraine , of which over 4,360 lived in territories of today's Poland. During World War II , when Estonia

3366-496: The population in each country were asked to fill out a survey form concerning the languages that they spoke with sufficient competency "to be able to have a conversation". The following is a table of European languages. The number of speakers as a first or second language (L1 and L2 speakers) listed are speakers in Europe only; see list of languages by number of native speakers and list of languages by total number of speakers for global estimates on numbers of speakers. The list

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3432-428: The population is Estonian . Harju County also has a large Russian population (31.2%), and most of it resides in Tallinn . Lääne-Viru County, however, only has a 9.5% Russian population. Religion in Northern Estonia (2021) [1] Northern Estonia covers about a quarter of Estonia. It is located on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland . The shoreline is characterized by many peninsulas, most of these are located in

3498-425: The population of Europe. The European Union has designated by agreement with the member states 24 languages as "official and working": Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish. This designation provides member states with two "entitlements":

3564-524: The predominant language family in Western, Northern and Central Europe . It is estimated that over 500 million Europeans are speakers of Germanic languages , the largest groups being German ( c. 95 million), English ( c. 400 million) , Dutch ( c. 24 million), Swedish ( c. 10 million), Danish ( c. 6 million), Norwegian ( c. 5 million) and Limburgish (c. 1.3 million). There are two extant major sub-divisions: West Germanic and North Germanic . A third group, East Germanic ,

3630-447: The return of Estonians who have particular skills needed in Estonia. One of the largest permanent Estonian communities outside Estonia is in Canada, with about 24,000 people (according to some sources up to 50,000 people). In the late 1940s and early 1950s, about 17,000 arrived in Canada, initially in Montreal . Toronto is currently the city with the largest population of Estonians outside of Estonia. The first Estonian World Festival

3696-413: The same language for Catholics and Protestants. The first languages whose standardisation was promoted included Italian ( questione della lingua : Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian → Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (the standard is based on Parisian), English (the standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on the dialects of

3762-427: The share of ethnic Estonians in Tallinn and whole Northern Estonia, but increased immigration mainly from other ex-soviet countries has on the contrary increased the share of non-Estonians. Today Northern Estonia has two main ethnic groups: Estonians and Russians. Ida-Viru County, most notably, has a large Russian population. The population of Ida-Viru County is 72.8% Russian, unlike other Estonian counties, where 80% of

3828-537: The sign languages and the oral languages of Europe are quite distinct from one another. Due to (visual/aural) modality differences, most sign languages are named for the larger ethnic nation in which they are spoken, plus the words "sign language", rendering what is spoken across much of France , Wallonia and Romandy as French Sign Language or LSF for: l angue des s ignes f rançaise . Recognition of non-oral languages varies widely from region to region. Some countries afford legal recognition, even to official on

3894-413: The various parts of the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity . Latin was itself part of the (otherwise extinct) Italic branch of Indo-European. Romance languages are divided phylogenetically into Italo-Western , Eastern Romance (including Romanian ) and Sardinian . The Romance-speaking area of Europe is occasionally referred to as Latin Europe . Italo-Western can be further broken down into

3960-450: The westernmost part ( Harjumaa ). There are also numerous islands, largest are Naissaar , Aegna and Pakri Islands . The highest point in Northern Estonia is Emumägi (166m). The area is mainly covered by forests. Ida-Viru County has large deposits of oil shale . Estonia has one of the largest deposits of oil shale in the world. In 2008, Estonia was the second largest producer of oil-shale products. In 2009, 80% of oil shale used globally

4026-455: The years of independence, many Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in Finland , but also in the UK, Benelux , Sweden , and Germany . Recognising the problems arising from low birth rate and emigration, the Estonian government has launched various measures to increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia. For example, a campaign Talendid koju! ("Bringing talents home!") has aimed to coordinate and promote

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4092-429: Was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or smaller boats over the Baltic Sea . Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada , the United Kingdom , the United States or Australia . Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991. Over

4158-434: Was among the first. A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest in standardisation of languages). The concept of the nation state began to emerge in the early modern period . Nations adopted particular dialects as their national language. This, together with improved communications, led to official efforts to standardise

4224-463: Was derived from the Phoenician alphabet , and Latin was derived from the Greek via the Old Italic alphabet . In the Early Middle Ages, Ogham was used in Ireland and runes (derived from Old Italic script) in Scandinavia. Both were replaced in general use by the Latin alphabet by the Late Middle Ages. The Cyrillic script was derived from the Greek with the first texts appearing around 940 AD. Around 1900 there were mainly two typeface variants of

4290-446: Was extracted in Estonia. In 2005, the oil-shale-fired Narva Power Plants accounted for 95% of the country's electrical generation. The most common language spoken in Northern Estonia is Estonian . Russian is the second most spoken language, mainly in Tallinn and Ida-Viru County. The northeastern coastal dialect is also spoken, the Middle Estonian dialect is sometimes spoken in Lääne-Viru County. The East Estonian dialect (similar to

4356-448: Was held in Toronto in 1972. Y-chromosome haplogroups among Estonians include N1c (35.7%), R1a (33.5%) and I1 (15%). R1a, common in Eastern Europe, was the dominant Y-DNA haplogroup among the pre-Uralic inhabitants of Estonia, as it is the only one found in the local samples from the time of the Corded Ware culture and Bronze Age. Appearance of N1c is linked to the arrival of Uralic-speakers. It originated in East Eurasia and

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