Misplaced Pages

#487512

119-527: The National Maximum Speed Limit ( NMSL ) was a provision of the federal government of the United States 1974 Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act that effectively prohibited speed limits higher than 55 miles per hour (89 km/h). The limit was increased to 65 miles per hour (105 km/h) in 1987. It was drafted in response to oil price spikes and supply disruptions during the 1973 oil crisis . Even after fuel costs began to decrease over time

238-640: A U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and must live in the state that they represent. In addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner . There is one delegate each from Washington, D.C. , Guam , the Virgin Islands , American Samoa , the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands , and a resident commissioner from Puerto Rico . Unlike

357-578: A 10 percent reduction in federal highway funding for states in noncompliance, by the 1980s traffic surveys showed the NMSL was widely violated: In the April 2, 1987, Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act , Congress permitted states to raise speed limits to 65 mph (105 km/h) on rural Interstate highways. In a bill that passed in mid-December 1987, Congress allowed certain non-Interstate rural roads built to Interstate standards to have

476-408: A 15% cut in gasoline production to reduce total gas consumption by 200,000 barrels a day, representing a 2.2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels. Nixon partly based that on a belief that cars achieve maximum efficiency between 40 and 50 mph (64 and 80 km/h) and that trucks and buses were most efficient at 55 mph (89 km/h). The California Trucking Association,

595-707: A complex set of relationships between state and federal courts. Federal courts can sometimes hear cases arising under state law pursuant to diversity jurisdiction , state courts can decide certain matters involving federal law, and a handful of federal claims are primarily reserved by federal statute to the state courts. Both court systems have exclusive jurisdiction in some areas and concurrent jurisdiction in others. The U.S. Constitution safeguards judicial independence by providing that federal judges shall hold office "during good behavior"; in practice, this usually means they serve until they die, retire, or resign. A judge who commits an offense while in office may be impeached in

714-523: A constitutional interpretation by the courts. One of the theoretical pillars of the U.S. Constitution is the idea of " checks and balances " among the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of American government: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. For example, while the legislative branch ( Congress ) has the power to create law, the executive branch under the president can veto any legislation—an act which, in turn, can be overridden by Congress. The president nominates judges to

833-461: A crash. In order to explain the disparity between the agreed improvement in crash survival and the observed results, Adams and Wilde argue that protecting someone from the consequences of risky behaviour may tend to encourage greater risk taking. Wilde states, "to compel a person to use protection from the consequences of hazardous driving, as seat belt laws do, is to encourage hazardous driving. A fine for non-compliance will encourage seat belt use, but

952-457: A driver over for the seat belt law violation alone, and secondary offense indicates that one can be punished for a seat belt law violation only if they are already pulled over for another reason. By January 2007 25 states and the District of Columbia had primary seat belt laws, 24 had secondary seat belt laws, and New Hampshire had no laws. Some states determine whether to enforce failure to wear

1071-517: A driver wearing a lap-shoulder seat belt are reduced by 48 percent. The same study indicated that in 2007, an estimated 15,147 lives were saved by seat belts in the United States and that if seat belt use were increased to 100 percent, an additional 5024 lives would have been saved. An earlier statistical analysis by the NHTSA claimed that seat belts save over 10,000 lives every year in the US. According to

1190-613: A few cases. The judicial power extends to cases arising under the Constitution, an Act of Congress ; a U.S. treaty ; cases affecting ambassadors , ministers and consuls of foreign countries in the U.S.; cases and controversies to which the federal government is a party; controversies between states (or their citizens) and foreign nations (or their citizens or subjects); and bankruptcy cases (collectively "federal-question jurisdiction"). The Eleventh Amendment removed from federal jurisdiction cases in which citizens of one state were

1309-484: A good idea, it's the law." Drive 55 Conservation Project video by Ryan Little. Tim Castleman founder of the Drive 55 Conservation Project discussing the benefits of getting drivers to slow down and observe all speed limits, never exceeding 55 MPH to reduce consumption by 20% to 50%. Film was a finalist at the 2010 Nevada City Film Festival. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kgCJcdurl9w&t=28s Federal government of

SECTION 10

#1732790559488

1428-514: A law which required vehicle occupants to wear seat belts. In the United Kingdom , seat belts must be worn at all times, by all passengers, if they are fitted to a vehicle unless reversing. Passengers may be exempt from wearing a seat belt for various exceptions, such as medical reasons. Since September 18, 2006, children travelling in the UK must also use an appropriate child seat in addition to

1547-409: A limit in 1999; as a result, according to Insurance Institute for Highway Safety researcher Anne McCartt, "What's impressive is the huge drop in the percent of vehicles going very fast.... The proportion of vehicles exceeding 75 mph (120 km/h), the limit set [by Montana] in 1999, tumbled 45 percent. The proportion surpassing 80 mph plummeted 85 percent. Large trucks slowed, too." (She did not mention that

1666-504: A moratorium on Federal sanctions against states in noncompliance with the 55 mph (90 km/h) national speed limit for fiscal years 1990 and 1991, and directed the U.S. Department of Transportation to promulgate new compliance standards for the 65 mph rural freeways, as well as for all 55 mph (90 km/h) highways. As required by ISTEA, they were published in the Code of Federal Regulations 23 CFR Part 1260, but no further action

1785-615: A more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states, or other recognized entities. Since the American Civil War , the powers of the federal government have generally expanded greatly, although there have been periods since that time of legislative branch dominance (e.g., the decades immediately following the Civil War) or when states' rights proponents have succeeded in limiting federal power through legislative action, executive prerogative or by

1904-525: A more recent fact sheet produced by the NHTSA: By 2009, despite large increases in population and the number of vehicles, road deaths in Victoria had fallen below 300, less than a third of the 1970 level, the lowest since records were kept, and far below the per capita rate in jurisdictions such as the United States. This reduction was generally attributed to aggressive road safety campaigns beginning with

2023-440: A route with passengers who did, and others who did not, insist on the driver wearing a belt. They completed the route faster when belted. In addition to risk compensation, Adams has suggested other mechanisms that may lead to inaccurate or unsupportable predictions of positive benefits from seat belt legislation. However, after introduction of seat belt laws in many European and American countries, safety agencies did not validate

2142-419: A seat belt as a primary or secondary offense depending on whether the unrestrained person is in the front or back of the car. Kansas, Maryland, and New Jersey enforce failure to wear a seat belt as a driver or front-seat passenger as a primary offense and failure to wear a seat belt as a rear seat passenger as a secondary offense. In 2009, Public Health Law Research published several evidence briefs summarizing

2261-478: A single elected term." Under the Presentment Clause of Article I, a bill that passes both chambers of Congress shall be presented to the president, who may sign the bill into law or veto the bill by returning it to the chamber where it originated. If the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill "within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him" it becomes a law without

2380-512: A speedometer scale adds little to the information provided to the driver by a roadside speed limit sign." The number 55 became a popular shorthand for the 55 mph speed limit. For example, a hand with a pair of fives in Texas hold'em poker is referred to as a "speed limit". Rock musician Sammy Hagar released " I Can't Drive 55 ", a hit single protesting the rule. The title of Minutemen 's critically acclaimed double album Double Nickels on

2499-456: Is an acknowledgement of the difficulty of enforcing the 55 mph (90 km/h) speed limit in these areas. A Cato Institute report showed that the safety record worsened in the first few months of the new speed limits, suggesting that the fatality drop found by the NRC was a statistical anomaly that regressed to the mean by 1978. After the oil crisis abated, the NMSL was retained mainly due to

SECTION 20

#1732790559488

2618-426: Is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism , in which power is shared between the federal government and state governments . The interpretation and execution of these principles, including what powers the federal government should have and how those powers can be exercised, have been debated ever since the adoption of the Constitution. Some make a case for expansive federal powers while others argue for

2737-456: Is generally because of seat belt laws and subsequent road safety campaigns. Seat belts are not required for bus occupants unless fitted, reversing drivers, and those driving some slow-moving vehicles. The laws for these differ depending on the state or territory with jurisdiction. All provinces in Canada have primary enforcement seat belt laws. In 1976, Ontario was the first province to pass

2856-428: Is of rear-seated passengers being forced forward in a crash and thus inadvertently harming the driver or front passenger. A University of Wisconsin study demonstrated that car accident victims who had not worn seat belts cost the hospital (and the state, in the case of the uninsured) on average 25% more. Neck injuries can be caused by the deceleration from a high speed. The passengers head continues to move forward while

2975-724: Is optional † - required by the law, but no penalty for violation at the time ‡ - required by the law, but low enforcement ♣ - definitely introduced by this date, possibly earlier Studies by road safety authorities conclude that seat belt legislation has reduced the number of casualties in road accidents. Experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers also indicated that wearing seat belts should lead to reduced risk of death and injury in car crashes. Studies of accident outcomes suggest that fatality rates among car occupants are reduced by between 30 and 50 percent if seat belts are worn. The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that death risks for

3094-569: Is sometimes used. The terms "Federal" and "National" in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government; for instance, the Federal Bureau of Investigation , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , and National Park Service . Because the seat of government is in Washington, D.C. , "Washington" is sometimes used as a metonym for the federal government. The United States government

3213-412: Is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which the nation is a party. The terms "Government of the United States of America" or "United States Government" are often used in official documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term "Federal Government" is often used, and the term "U.S. Government"

3332-556: Is weak in most parts of the country. In Indonesia , belts are only mandatory for front seats. Many low-entry car models are not equipped with rear seat belts. In Malaysia , the first stage of safety belt laws was implemented in 1979. This was expanded in January 2009 to include rear passengers. Passenger vehicles registered prior to January 1, 1995, and those weighing more than 3.5 tons are exempted from this rule. The third and fourth stages, which will deal with baby and child seats and

3451-632: The Callaghan Labour Government (1976–1979) , stated: "On the best available evidence of accidents in this country – evidence which has not been seriously contested – compulsion could save up to 1000 lives and 10,000 injuries a year." In the United States , seat belt legislation varies by state. The state of Wisconsin introduced legislation in 1961 requiring seat belts to be fitted to the front outboard seat positions of cars. Seat belts have been mandatory equipment since

3570-599: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) required speedometers to have special emphasis on the number 55 and a maximum speed of 85 mph (140 km/h). Some manufacturers circumvented the rule by including extra lines beyond 85 to show higher speeds. However, on March 25, 1982, NHTSA revoked that Standard (FMVSS 127) entirely, eliminating speedometer and odometer rules because they were "unlikely to yield significant safety benefits" and "[a] highlighted '55' on

3689-540: The New York State Thruway , the 50 mph (80 km/h) speed limit had to be raised to comply with the law. The law capped speed limits at 55 mph (89 km/h) on all other roads. A survey by the Associated Press found that, as of Wednesday, January 2, 1974: That includes some states that voluntarily lowered their limits in advance of the federal requirement. On May 12, 1974,

National Maximum Speed Law - Misplaced Pages Continue

3808-508: The Senate . The U.S. House of Representatives is made up of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district in a state from where they were elected. Apportionment of seats among the 50 states is determined by state populations, and it is updated after each decennial U.S. Census. Each member serves a two-year term. In order to be elected as a representative, an individual must be at least 25 years of age, must have been

3927-526: The Supreme Court , combat piracies and felonies , declare war , raise and support armies , provide and maintain a navy , make rules for the regulation of land and naval forces, provide for, arm and discipline the militia , exercise exclusive legislation in the District of Columbia , regulate interstate commerce , and to make laws necessary to properly execute powers. Over the two centuries since

4046-494: The U.S. Senate , all members of the U.S. House must be elected and cannot be appointed. In the case of a vacancy, the seat must be filled through a special election, as required under Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population. There are currently 100 senators (2 from each of the 50 states), who each serve six-year terms. Approximately one-third of

4165-463: The U.S. Supreme Court . In the federal division of power, the federal government shares sovereignty with each of the 50 states in their respective territories. U.S. law recognizes Indigenous tribes as possessing sovereign powers , while being subject to federal jurisdiction. The full name of the republic is the "United States of America". No other name appears in the Constitution , and this

4284-532: The U.S. Tax Court , are specialized courts handling only certain kinds of cases, known as subject matter jurisdiction . The Bankruptcy Courts are supervised by the district courts, and, as such, are not considered part of the Article III judiciary. As such, their judges do not have lifetime tenure, nor are they Constitutionally exempt from diminution of their remuneration. The Tax Court is an Article I Court, not an Article III Court. The district courts are

4403-505: The United States District Courts , which are the general trial courts for federal law, and for certain controversies between litigants who are not deemed citizens of the same state, known as diversity jurisdiction . There are three levels of federal courts with general jurisdiction, which are courts that handle both criminal and civil suits between individuals. Other courts, such as the bankruptcy courts and

4522-914: The United States Postal Service (USPS), NASA , the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). In addition, there are government-owned corporations , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Railroad Passenger Corporation . The Judiciary, under Article III of

4641-713: The White House staff, the National Security Council , the Office of Management and Budget , the Council of Economic Advisers , the Council on Environmental Quality , the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative , the Office of National Drug Control Policy , and the Office of Science and Technology Policy . Outside of the EOP and the executive departments are a number of independent agencies . These include

4760-630: The head of government (the chief executive). The Constitution directs the president to " take care that the laws be faithfully executed " and requires the president to swear or affirm to "preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Legal scholars William P. Marshall and Saikrishna B. Prakash write of the Clause: "the President may neither breach federal law nor order their subordinates to do so, for defiance cannot be considered faithful execution. The Constitution also incorporates

4879-419: The 1968 model year per Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 . New York State passed the first law in the US mandating the use of seat belts in 1984 under the leadership of John D. States , an orthopedic surgeon who dedicated his career to improving automotive safety. Depending on which state a driver is in, not wearing a seat belt in the front seat is either a primary offense or a secondary offense, with

National Maximum Speed Law - Misplaced Pages Continue

4998-552: The 1970s. Front seat belts were compulsory equipment on all new cars registered in the UK from 1968, although it did not become compulsory for them to be worn until 1983. Rear seat belts were compulsory equipment from 1986 and became compulsory for them to be worn in 1991. However, it has never been a legal requirement for cars registered before those dates to be fitted with seat belts. In one such attempt in 1979 similar claims for potential lives and injuries saved were advanced. William Rodgers , then Secretary of State for Transport in

5117-886: The Cabinet who are appointed by the president. These are the White House Chief of Staff, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Director of the Office of Management & Budget, United States Trade Representative, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, and Administrator of the Small Business Administration. The heads of the 15 departments are chosen by

5236-456: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that in 2010 non-fatal injuries to motor vehicle occupants cost the United States $ 48 billion in medical expenses and lost work. An example is an unbelted driver who kills or injures another road user because he/she slides out of proper seating position and cannot regain control of the vehicle during slippery conditions. Another notable scenario

5355-643: The Constitution, explains and applies the laws. This branch does this by hearing and eventually making decisions on various legal cases. Article III section I of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court of the United States and authorizes the United States Congress to establish inferior courts as their need shall arise. Section I also establishes a lifetime tenure for all federal judges and states that their compensation may not be diminished during their time in office. Article II section II establishes that all federal judges are to be appointed by

5474-601: The Dime refers to the NMSL, and in jest, to the Sammy Hagar single. The bill limiting speed limits was used as a debate topic in Season 2 Episode 12 of The Simpsons . One of a series of advertising campaigns for the 55 mph speed limit offered, "Speed limit 55. It's not just a good idea. It's the law.". This was parodied with a more absolute statement based on the speed of light : "186,000 miles per second. It's not just

5593-593: The English bars on dispensing or suspending the law, with some supposing that the Clause itself prohibits both." Many presidential actions are undertaken via executive orders , presidential proclamations , and presidential memoranda . The president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . Under the Reception Clause , the president is empowered to "receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers";

5712-570: The European Union, seat belts were only mandatory in vehicles under 3.5 tonnes until a 2003 directive made them mandatory in all vehicles in 2006. The directive also clarifies that seat belts are to be used for children and makes it mandatory to deactivate airbags for the use of rear-facing child restraints. Some exemptions exist for five members states — Belgium, Denmark, France, Sweden, and Spain. In many developing countries , pedestrians, cyclists, rickshaw operators and moped users represent

5831-521: The House plus its two senators). The District of Columbia has a number of electoral votes "equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State". A President may also be seated by succession . As originally drafted, there was no limit to the time a President could serve, however

5950-460: The IIHS survey of traffic speeds on Interstate highways in 2006 she referred to, found Montana, as compared with New Mexico and Nevada, had the highest compliance with the 75 mph (120 km/h) speed limit on rural interstates: 76 percent. ) Hawaii was the last state to raise its speed limit when, in response to public outcry after an experiment with traffic enforcement cameras in 2002, it raised

6069-592: The NMSL reduced fuel consumption by 0.2 to 1.0 percent. Rural interstates, the roads most visibly affected by the NMSL, accounted for 10% of the U.S.'s vehicle-miles-traveled in 1973, and although dropping speeds from 75 to 55 mph (120 to 90 km/h) reduces air resistance by over half, such free-flowing roads typically provide more fuel-efficient travel than conventional roads. Despite federal compliance standards mandated by Congress that no more than 50 percent of free-flowing traffic on 55 mph-posted highways exceed 55 mph from 1981 onwards, which required up to

SECTION 50

#1732790559488

6188-837: The President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments." These appointments delegate "by legal authority a portion of the sovereign powers of the federal government." The Constitution grants the president the "Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States , except in Cases of Impeachment"; this clemency power includes the power to issue absolute or conditional pardons, and to issue commute sentences , to remit fines, and to issue general amnesties . The presidential clemency power extends only to federal crimes, and not to state crimes. The president has informal powers beyond their formal powers. For example,

6307-439: The Senate stands for election every two years. If a vacancy occurs, the state governor appoints a replacement to complete the term or to hold the office until a special election can take place. The House and Senate each have particular exclusive powers. For example, the Senate must approve (give " advice and consent " to) many important presidential appointments, including cabinet officers, federal judges (including nominees to

6426-479: The Supreme Court), department secretaries (heads of federal executive branch departments), U.S. military and naval officers, and ambassadors to foreign countries. All legislative bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives. The approval of both chambers is required to pass all legislation, which then may only become law by being signed by the president (or, if the president vetoes

6545-493: The Twenty-second Amendment, ratified in 1951, originally limits any president to serving two four-year terms (8 years); the amendment specifically "caps the service of a president at 10 years" by providing that "if a person succeeds to the office of president without election and serves less than two years, he may run for two full terms; otherwise, a person succeeding to office of president can serve no more than

6664-798: The U.S. Office of Defense Transportation established a national maximum "Victory Speed Limit" of 35 miles per hour (56 km/h), in addition to gasoline and tire rationing, to help conserve fuel and rubber for the American war effort. Although it was widely disregarded by many motorists, the Victory Speed Limit lasted from May 1942 to August 14, 1945, when the war ended. Immediately before the NMSL became effective, speed limits were as high as 75 mph (121 km/h). (Kansas had lowered its turnpike speed limit from 80 mph (130 km/h) before 1974.) Montana and Nevada generally posted no speed limits on highways, limiting drivers to only whatever

6783-493: The United States [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The federal government of the United States ( U.S. federal government or U.S. government ) is the common government of the United States , a federal republic located primarily in North America , comprising 50 states , five major self-governing territories , several island possessions , and the federal district (national capital) of Washington, D.C. , where

6902-559: The United States Senate defeated a proposal by Senator Bob Dole to raise the speed limit to 60 mph (97 km/h). The 55 mph (90 km/h) National Maximum Speed Limit was made permanent when Congress enacted and President Gerald Ford signed into law the Federal-Aid Highway Amendments of 1974 on January 4, 1975. The limit's effect on highway safety is unclear. Both during the time

7021-525: The United States was formed, many disputes have arisen over the limits on the powers of the federal government. These disputes have often been the subject of lawsuits that have ultimately been decided by the United States Supreme Court . Congressional oversight is intended to prevent waste and fraud, protect civil liberties and individual rights, ensure executive compliance with the law, gather information for making laws and educating

7140-477: The actual impact of the law difficult. Although the vast majority of states reported fewer traffic deaths in 1974 compared with 1973, there were in fact three states where traffic deaths actually increased in 1974, 1975 and 1976, compared to 1973, notwithstanding the 55 mph (90 km/h) speed limit: Alaska, New Hampshire and Wyoming. According to the National Research Council , there

7259-497: The age of six are prohibited to occupy the front seats of motor vehicles even if wearing a seat belt. Jeepneys are only required to have lap belts for the front seat passengers and the driver. The table below gives an overview of when seat belt legislation was first introduced in different countries. It includes both regional and national legislation. Trucks 2004 (Rear Seats) * - actually only vehicles registered after 15 June 1976; in previous registered vehicles fitting

SECTION 60

#1732790559488

7378-429: The benefits of seat belts is risk compensation and risk homeostasis , advanced by researchers John Adams and Gerald Wilde. The idea of this theory is that, if the risk of death or injury from a car crash is reduced by the wearing of seat belts, drivers will respond by reducing the precautions they take against crashes. Adams accepts the hypothesis that wearing seat belts improves a vehicle occupant's chances of surviving

7497-458: The bill, both houses of Congress then re-pass the bill, but by a two-thirds majority of each chamber, in which case the bill becomes law without the president's signature). The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the Necessary and Proper Clause , which grants Congress

7616-640: The body is restrained, potentially causing paralyzing injuries. A study of such injuries notes, "Seatbelts save lives. However, they may cause injury to adjacent structures and when they malfunction can cause injury to the abdominal viscera, bony skeleton and vascular structures. The motor industry has attempted to reduce these injuries by modification of vehicle design and safety equipment." In 1985, some manufacturers believed mandatory cheaper seat belts could stop airbag development, according to The New York Times . Member States shall require that all occupants aged three and over of M2 and M3 vehicles in use shall use

7735-402: The case from state court to federal court. The United States Courts of Appeals are appellate courts that hear appeals of cases decided by the district courts, and some direct appeals from administrative agencies, and some interlocutory appeals. The U.S. Supreme Court hears appeals from the decisions of the courts of appeals or state supreme courts, and in addition has original jurisdiction over

7854-404: The chambers to consider urgent matters. The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the federal government. The vice president's duties and powers are established in the legislative branch of the federal government under Article 1, Section 3, Clauses 4 and 5 as the president of the Senate ; this means that they are the designated presiding officer of the Senate. In that capacity,

7973-499: The compensation theory: A 2007 study based on data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration concluded that between 1985 and 2002 there were "significant reductions in fatality rates for occupants and motorcyclists after the implementation of belt use laws", and that "seatbelt use rate is significantly related to lower fatality rates for

8092-544: The consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Article II's Appointments Clause provides that the president "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States " while providing that "Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in

8211-572: The economy. In addition, each house may name special, or select, committees to study specific problems. Today, much of the congressional workload is borne by the subcommittees, of which there are around 150. The Constitution grants numerous powers to Congress. Enumerated in Article I, Section 8, these include the powers to levy and collect taxes ; to coin money and regulate its value; provide for punishment for counterfeiting; establish post offices and roads, issue patents, create federal courts inferior to

8330-401: The effects that changes in speed limits have on driving speeds, safety, and travel time on different kinds of roads." The Academies report also observed that on rural interstates, the free-flowing traffic speed should be the major determinant of the speed limit: "Drivers typically can anticipate appropriate driving speeds." This is due, in part, to the strong access control in these areas but also

8449-404: The exception of New Hampshire, which does not have a law requiring people over age 18 to wear a seat belt. In the front seat, the driver and each passenger must wear a seat belt, one person per belt. In some states, such as New Hampshire, Michigan, Arkansas, and Missouri, belts in the rear seats are not mandatory for people over the age of 16. A primary offense means that a police officer can pull

8568-418: The executive branch when becoming president upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president, which has happened nine times in U.S. history. Lastly, in the case of a Twenty-fifth Amendment succession event, the vice president would become acting president, assuming all of the powers and duties of president, except being designated as president. Accordingly, by circumstances, the Constitution designates

8687-762: The fact that the law fails to increase people's desire to be safe encourages compensatory behaviour." Studies and experiments have been carried out to examine the risk compensation theory. In one experiment subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving belted did not drive any slower when subsequently unbelted, but those who started driving unbelted did drive consistently faster when subsequently belted. A study of habitual non-seat belt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to seat belt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances. In another study, taxi drivers who were habitual non-wearers were timed over

8806-493: The higher speed limits. As of December 29, 1987, the states of California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, and Oklahoma had applied for and been accepted into this program. The program was originally slated to last four years. A total of 40 states raised their speed limits to 65 mph on rural Interstate highway and non-Interstate rural roads built to Interstate standards by 1988, joined by Massachusetts (Turnpike only) in 1992, and by Maryland, New York and Pennsylvania in

8925-486: The interstates in question are only part of the equation, one also must account for traffic moving off the relatively more dangerous country roads and onto the relatively safer interstates. Accounting for this they find that raising rural speed limits to 65 mph (105 km/h) caused a 3.4% to 5.1% decrease in fatalities. In 1998, the Transportation Research Board footnoted an estimate that

9044-421: The introduction of mandatory front outboard mounting points in 1964, the use of seat belts by all vehicle passengers was made compulsory in the states of Victoria and South Australia in 1970 and 1971, respectively. By 1973, the use of fitted seat belts by vehicle occupants was made compulsory for the rest of Australia and some other countries during the 1970s and 1980s. The subsequent dramatic decline in road deaths

9163-485: The largest trucking association in the United States, opposed differential speed limits on grounds that they are "not wise from a safety standpoint." The Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act was a bill in the U.S. Congress that included the National Maximum Speed Limit. States had to agree to the limit if they desired to receive federal funding for highway repair. The uniform speed limit

9282-545: The late automotive journalist Brock Yates (1934–2016)--perhaps the most outspoken published opponent of the 55 mph National Maximum Speed Limit. Under the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, passed by Congress and signed by President George H. W. Bush on December 18, 1991, the 65 mph speed limit was made permanent for rural non-Interstate highways built to Interstate standards. It also declared

9401-486: The law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. The United States Constitution does not specifically mention the power of judicial review , which is the power to declare a law unconstitutional. There have been instances in the past where such declarations have been ignored by the other two branches. Below the U.S. Supreme Court are the United States Courts of Appeals , and below them in turn are

9520-404: The law was enacted and after it was repealed, automobile fatalities decreased, which was widely attributed mainly to automobile safety improvements, owing to an increase in the safety of cars themselves, and the passage of mandatory seat belt legislation by all states except New Hampshire from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s. This decrease in fatalities from automobile accidents makes figuring out

9639-497: The law would remain in place until 1995 as proponents claimed it reduced traffic fatalities. While federal officials hoped gasoline consumption would fall by 2.2%, the actual savings were estimated at between 0.5% and 1%. The law was widely disregarded by motorists nationwide, and some states opposed the law, but many jurisdictions discovered it to be a major source of revenue. Actions ranged from proposing deals for an exemption to de-emphasizing speed limit enforcement . The NMSL

9758-617: The laws on libertarian principles. Some do so on the grounds that seat belt laws infringe on their civil liberties . For example, in a 1986 letter to the editor of the New York Times , a writer argued that seat belt legislation was "coercive" and that "a mandatory-seat-belt law violates the right to bodily privacy and self-control". A counterpoint to the libertarian view is that by reducing death and serious injury, mandatory seat belt use and enforcement of seat belt laws results in substantial social benefits. For example, an analysis by

9877-414: The majority of road users. In India , all cars manufactured after March 25, 1994, are equipped with front seat belts. The rule was extended for rear seats in 2002. The usage of seat belts is to be implemented by the respective states, with most states making seat belt usage for front seat passengers mandatory in 2002. Older vehicles that did not originally have seat belts were exempted. However, enforcement

9996-503: The majority of the federal government is based. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative , executive , and judicial , whose powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress , the president , and the federal courts , respectively. The powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of executive departments and courts subordinate to

10115-423: The maximum speed limit on parts of Interstates H-1 and H-3 to 60 mph (97 km/h). Despite the repeal of federal speed limit controls, the 2011 maximum speed limits were on average lower than those of 1974: Although traffic deaths and death rates generally declined in the United States between 1989 and 2009, highway safety advocates have long continued to assert that increases in state speed limits after

10234-477: The nation's highest judiciary authority, the Supreme Court (as well as to lower federal courts), but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in turn, can invalidate unconstitutional laws passed by the Congress. The United States Congress , under Article I of the Constitution, is the legislative branch of the federal government. It is bicameral , comprising the House of Representatives and

10353-483: The new 65 mph speed limit for rural Interstates was welcomed by the California Highway Patrol , National Motorists Association ( née Citizens' Coalition for Rational Traffic Laws), a motorists' advocacy group, American Motorcyclist Association , Owner-Operator Independent Drivers Association (OOIDA), the automotive enthusiast magazines Motor Trend , Road & Track , Car and Driver , and

10472-501: The number of passengers in a vehicle, have not taken effect. In the Philippines , a seat belt law, Republic Act No. 8750, was approved on August 5, 1999. The law took effect in 2000 and requires all public and private vehicles, except motorcycles and tricycles , to have their front seats equipped with seat belts. Front seats as defined by the law includes the first row of seats behind the driver for public utility buses. Those below

10591-702: The office of vice president. Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution sets forth the creation of a presidential Cabinet. The role of the Cabinet is to advise the president and carry out the programs and laws of the federal government. The Cabinet is composed of the vice president and the leaders of 15 executive departments. Those executive departments are the Departments of State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security. Additionally, there are seven other members of

10710-403: The official. Then, a trial is held in the Senate to decide whether the official should be removed from office. As of 2023 , three presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson , Bill Clinton , and Donald Trump (twice). None of the three were removed from office following trial in the Senate. Article I, Section 2, paragraph 2 of the U.S. Constitution gives each chamber the power to "determine

10829-488: The plaintiffs and the government of another state was the defendant. It did not disturb federal jurisdiction in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff and a citizen of another state the defendant. The power of the federal courts extends both to civil actions for damages and other redress, and to criminal cases arising under federal law. The interplay of the Supremacy Clause and Article III has resulted in

10948-445: The possible safety aspect. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety analysts wrote three papers that argue that increase from 55 to 65 mph (89 to 105 km/h) on rural roads led to a 25% to 30% increase in deaths (1/3 from increased travel, 2/3 from increased speed) while the full repeal in 1995 led to a further 15% increase in fatalities. In contrast, researchers at University of California Transportation Science Center argue that

11067-543: The power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers". Members of the House and Senate are elected by first-past-the-post voting in every state except Louisiana and Georgia , which have runoffs , and Maine and Alaska , which use ranked-choice voting . Congress has the power to remove the president, federal judges, and other federal officers from office. The House of Representatives and Senate have separate roles in this process. The House must first vote to impeach

11186-497: The power to adjourn Congress whenever the House and Senate cannot agree when to adjourn; no president has ever used this power. The president also has the constitutional power to, "on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them"; this power has been used "to consider nominations, war, and emergency legislation." This Section invests the President with the discretion to convene Congress on "extraordinary occasions"; this special session power that has been used to call

11305-558: The power to re-organize or even abolish federal courts lower than the Supreme Court. The U.S. Supreme Court decides cases and controversies , which include matters pertaining to the federal government, disputes between states, and interpretation of the United States Constitution, and, in general, can declare legislation or executive action made at any level of the government as unconstitutional , nullifying

11424-502: The president and approved with the "advice and consent" of the U.S. Senate. Once confirmed, these "Cabinet secretaries" serve at the pleasure of the president. In addition to the executive departments, a number of staff organizations are grouped into the Executive Office of the President (EOP), which was created in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The EOP is overseen by the White House Chief of Staff. The EOP includes

11543-413: The president and confirmed by the United States Senate. The Judiciary Act of 1789 subdivided the nation jurisdictionally into judicial districts and created federal courts for each district. The three tiered structure of this act established the basic structure of the national judiciary: the Supreme Court, 13 courts of appeals, 94 district courts, and two courts of special jurisdiction. Congress retains

11662-543: The president has broad authority to conduct foreign relations, is generally considered to have the sole power of diplomatic recognition , and is the United States' chief diplomat, although the Congress also has an important role in legislating on foreign affairs, and can, for example, "institute a trade embargo, declare war upon a foreign government that the President had recognized, or decline to appropriate funds for an embassy in that country." The president may also negotiate and sign treaties, but ratifying treaties requires

11781-474: The president has major agenda-setting powers to influence lawmaking and policymaking, and typically has a major role as the leader of their political party . The president and vice president are normally elected as running mates by the Electoral College ; each state has a number of electoral votes equal to the size of its Congressional delegation ( i.e. , its number of Representatives in

11900-525: The president's signature, "unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return in which Case it shall not be a Law" (called a pocket veto ). A presidential veto may be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress; this occurs relatively infrequently. The president may be impeached by a majority in the House and removed from office by a two-thirds majority in the Senate for " treason , bribery , or other high crimes and misdemeanors ". The president may not dissolve Congress , but has

12019-501: The public, and evaluate executive performance. It applies to cabinet departments, executive agencies, regulatory commissions, and the presidency. Congress's oversight function takes many forms: The executive branch is established in Article Two of the United States Constitution , which vests executive power in the president of the United States . The president is both the head of state (performing ceremonial functions) and

12138-559: The repeal of the National Maximum Speed Law have had a detrimental effect on highway safety, and they have conducted many studies including statistical analyses that claim to support this argument. For example, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety declared that "each 5 mph increase in the maximum speed limit resulted in a 4 percent increase in fatalities. The increase on Interstates and freeways...

12257-481: The research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health. One stated, "Safety belt laws work, but there is strong evidence to support that primary enforcement safety belt laws are more effective than secondary enforcement laws in increasing seat belt use and reducing crash injuries." Another found that "there is strong evidence that enhanced seat belt enforcement interventions can substantially increase seat belt use and its associated benefits." In

12376-477: The rules of its proceedings". From this provision were created congressional committees , which do the work of drafting legislation and conducting congressional investigations into national matters. The 118th Congress (2023–2025) has 20 standing committees in the House and 19 in the Senate, plus 4 joint permanent committees with members from both houses overseeing the Library of Congress , printing, taxation, and

12495-457: The same way as the president or other officials of the federal government. U.S. judges are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. Another Constitutional provision prohibits Congress from reducing the pay of any present Article III judge. However, Congress is able to set a lower salary for all future judges who take office after such a pay reduction is passed by Congress. Seat belt legislation In Australia , after

12614-809: The seat belt laws. A 2008 study in the Journal of Health Economics found that mandatory seat belt laws in the U.S. "significantly increased seatbelt use among high school age youths by 45-80%" and "significantly reduced traffic fatalities and serious injuries resulting from fatal crashes by 8 and 9%, respectively." The authors note that these "results suggest that if all states had primary enforcement seatbelt laws then regular youth seatbelt use would be nearly universal and youth fatalities would fall by about 120 per year." Unece has some regulations on seat belt. A number of groups and individuals are opposed to seat belt legislation. The most common grounds for opposition are: The most common basis for disputing estimates of

12733-448: The standard seat belt, unless they are 12 years old or have reached at least 135 centimetres (53 in) in height, whichever is first. In the UK, a requirement for anchorage points was introduced in 1965, followed by the requirement in 1968 to fit three-point belts in the front outboard positions on all new cars and all existing cars back to 1965. Successive UK governments proposed, but failed to deliver, seat belt legislation throughout

12852-438: The states effective December 8, 1995. Several states immediately reverted to already existing laws. For example, most Texas rural limits that were above 55 mph (89 km/h) in 1974 immediately reverted to 70 mph (112 km/h), causing some legal confusion before the new signs were posted. Montana reverted to non-numerical speed limits on most rural highways, but its legislature adopted 75 mph (121 km/h) as

12971-559: The summer of 1995. The higher speed limit on most rural Interstates and similar non-Interstate roads was vehemently opposed by highway safety advocates, including the National Safety Council , Public Citizen , Mothers Against Drunk Driving , American Trucking Associations , and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety , all ardent, long-time supporters of 55 mph (90 km/h). On the other hand,

13090-438: The total, pedestrian, and all non-occupant models even when controlling for the presence of other state traffic safety policies and a variety of demographic factors". A comprehensive 2003 US study also did "not find any evidence that higher seat belt usage has a significant effect on driving behavior." Their results showed that "overall, mandatory seat belt laws unambiguously reduce traffic fatalities." Opponents have objected to

13209-529: The trial courts wherein cases that are considered under the Judicial Code (Title 28, United States Code) consistent with the jurisdictional precepts of federal question jurisdiction , diversity jurisdiction, and pendent jurisdiction can be filed and decided. The district courts can also hear cases under removal jurisdiction , wherein a case brought in a state court meets the requirements for diversity jurisdiction, and one party litigant chooses to "remove"

13328-518: The vice president as routinely in the legislative branch, or succeeding to the executive branch as president, or possibly being in both as acting president pursuant to the Twenty-fifth Amendment . Because of circumstances, the overlapping nature of the duties and powers attributed to the office, the title of the office and other matters, such has generated a spirited scholarly dispute regarding attaching an exclusive branch designation to

13447-522: The vice president has the authority ( ex officio , for they are not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie-breaking vote . Pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment , the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College . As first in the U.S. presidential line of succession , the vice president's duties and powers move to

13566-406: Was 8 percent. Comparing the annual number of fatalities in the 41 states [studied] with the number that would have been expected if each state's maximum speed limit had remained unchanged since 1993, [we] arrived at the estimate of 33,000 additional fatalities over the 20-year period [from 1993 to 2013]." Effective September 1, 1979, in a FMVSS that also regulated speedometer and odometer accuracy,

13685-551: Was a decrease in fatalities of about 3,000 to 5,000 lives in 1974, and about 2,000 to 4,000 lives saved annually thereafter through 1983 because of slower and more uniform traffic speeds since the law took effect. Later, the National Academies wrote that there is "a strong link between vehicle speed and crash severity [which] supports the need for setting maximum limits on high-speed roads" but that "the available data do not provide an adequate basis for precisely quantifying

13804-456: Was modified in 1987 and 1988 to allow up to 65 mph (105 km/h) limits on certain limited-access rural roads. Congress repealed the NMSL in 1995, fully returning speed limit -setting authority to the individual states. The law's safety benefit is disputed as research found conflicting results. The power to set speed limits historically belonged to the states. Prior to the NMSL, the sole exception to this occurred during World War II, when

13923-425: Was safe for conditions. As of November 20, 1973, several states had modified speed limits: As an emergency response to the 1973 oil crisis , on November 26, 1973, President Richard Nixon proposed a national 50 mph (80 km/h) speed limit for passenger vehicles and a 55 mph (90 km/h) speed limit for trucks and buses. Also proposed were a ban on ornamental lighting, no gasoline sales on Sunday, and

14042-559: Was signed into law by Nixon on January 2, 1974, and became effective 60 days later, by requiring the limit as a condition of each state receiving highway funds, a use of the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution . The legislation required 55 mph (89 km/h) speed limits on all four-lane divided highways unless the road had a lower limit before November 1, 1973. In some cases, like

14161-582: Was taken by USDOT against the states for speed limit noncompliance for the last few years the NMSL was still in effect until it was repealed in 1995. A few roads that were not Interstate Highways but had been built to Interstate standards were redesignated as Interstate Highways to qualify for the increased speed limit: Congress lifted all federal speed limit controls in the National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 , returning all speed limit determination authority to

#487512