83-688: The Naga Viper pepper is a hot chili pepper . In 2011, it was recorded as the "World's Hottest Chili" by the Guinness World Records with a rating of 1,382,118 Scoville heat units (SHU), but was surpassed in SHU by the Carolina Reaper , in 2017, and again by the latest world record holder Pepper X in 2023. The Naga Viper was discovered in Nagaland in India farmer but the patent
166-974: A sesquiterpene originally discovered in the tubers of Cyperus rotundus , which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/l in water and in wine: rotundone is also present in marjoram, oregano, rosemary, basil, thyme, and geranium, as well as in some Shiraz wines . Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve its spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavour when exposed to light, which can transform piperine into nearly tasteless isochavicine . Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheld pepper mills or grinders, which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this as an alternative to pepper shakers that dispense ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as
249-478: A "bright aroma." They decay quickly if not dried or preserved, making them unsuitable for international shipping. Red peppercorns usually consist of ripe peppercorn drupes preserved in brine and vinegar. Ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper. Pink peppercorns are the fruits of the Peruvian pepper tree , Schinus molle , or its relative,
332-531: A burning marrow. I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table, Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen. But you will find in me no quality of any worth, Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow. It is commonly believed that during the Middle Ages , pepper was often used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. No evidence supports this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely; in
415-402: A certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? He does not state whether the 50 million was the actual amount of money which found its way to India or the total retail cost of
498-682: A chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds. Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death. Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin due to their large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system. The smell of chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on
581-687: A common commodity. Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a traditional medicine . Pepper appears in the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta , chapter five, as one of the few medicines a monk is allowed to carry. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used. Black pepper (or perhaps long pepper) was believed to cure several illnesses, such as constipation , insomnia , oral abscesses , sunburn , and toothaches , among others. Pepper contains phytochemicals , including amides , piperidines , and pyrrolidines . Pepper
664-441: A low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked. The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as
747-522: A part of human diets since about 7,500 BC. They are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas. Chili peppers were cultivated in east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago, and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon . They were among the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in those areas. Peru has
830-418: A purely decorative garden plant. Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster , in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm. Capsaicin ,
913-664: A variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry. Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and chili powder , Fresh or dried chilies are used to make hot sauce , a liquid condiment —usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes. Dried chilies are used to make chili oil , cooking oil infused with chili. In 2020, 36 million tonnes of green chilies and peppers (counted as any Capsicum or Pimenta fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of
SECTION 10
#1732793745810996-465: Is a hydrophobic , colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit. When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in
1079-418: Is a perennial woody vine growing up to 4 m (13 ft) in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, 5 to 10 cm (2.0 to 3.9 in) long and 3 to 6 cm (1.2 to 2.4 in) across. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes 4 to 8 cm (1.6 to 3.1 in) long at
1162-423: Is a non- photoperiod -sensitive crop. Chilies are vulnerable to pests including aphids , glasshouse red spider mite , and glasshouse whitefly , all of which feed on plant sap. Common diseases include grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea ; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface. Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make
1245-522: Is easily found and readily available. In New Zealand , the seeds of kawakawa ( Piper excelsum ), a relative of black pepper , are sometimes used as pepper; the leaves of Pseudowintera colorata ("mountain horopito") are another replacement for pepper. Several plants in the United States are also used as pepper substitutes, such as field pepperwort , least pepperwort , shepherd's purse , horseradish , and field pennycress . The pepper plant
1328-414: Is flavoured with a tai pla sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies. In Jamaica, jerk chicken is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and allspice . Goan vindaloo curry uses the extremely hot ghost pepper or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish". In Bhutan , ema datshi , entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese,
1411-430: Is found in commonly used peppers: The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are: Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories , and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B 6 . Due to their unique pungency (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around
1494-547: Is known to cause sneezing . Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing. Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question. One tablespoon (6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts of vitamin K (13% of the daily value or DV), iron (10% DV), and manganese (18% DV), with trace amounts of other essential nutrients , protein , and dietary fibre . Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from piperine derived from both
1577-633: Is most closely related to other Asian species such as P. caninum . Wild pepper grows in the Western Ghats region of India . Into the 19th century, the forests contained expansive wild pepper vines, as recorded by the Scottish physician Francis Buchanan (also a botanist and geographer) in his book A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (Volume III). However, deforestation resulted in wild pepper growing in more limited forest patches from Goa to Kerala , with
1660-519: Is native to the Malabar Coast of India , and the Malabar pepper is extensively cultivated there and in other tropical regions. Ground, dried, and cooked peppercorns have been used since antiquity, both for flavour and as a traditional medicine . Black pepper is the world's most traded spice , and is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. Its spiciness is due to
1743-527: Is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of 50 million sesterces ", and further moralizes on pepper: It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being
SECTION 20
#17327937458101826-525: Is possible that black pepper was known in China in the second century BCE, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by Emperor Wu to what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something called jujiang or "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of Shu , an area in what is now the Sichuan province. The traditional view among historians
1909-852: Is taken Fowler of the Chilli Pepper Company in Cark , Cumbria . It is claimed to be an unstable three-way hybrid produced from the Naga Morich , the Bhut jolokia and the Trinidad scorpion , which are some of the world's hottest peppers. This vegetable -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Chili pepper#Notable hot chili peppers Chili peppers , also spelled chile or chilli (from Classical Nahuatl chīlli [ˈt͡ʃiːlːi] ), are varieties of berry-fruit plants from
1992-527: Is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made from betel leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black. In the third century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as hujiao or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a fourth-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper. By
2075-470: Is the national dish. Many Mexican dishes use chilies of different types, including the jalapeño , poblano , habanero , serrano , chipotle , ancho , pasilla , guajillo , de árbol , cascabel and mulato . These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy mole sauce and Mexican salsa sauces. The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as
2158-490: Is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning . The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter (fresh and fully mature), dark red, and contains a stone which encloses a single pepper seed . Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper , or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit), or white pepper (ripe fruit seeds). Black pepper
2241-472: The Brazilian pepper tree , Schinus terebinthifolius , plants from a different family ( Anacardiaceae ). As they are members of the cashew family, they may cause allergic reactions , including anaphylaxis , for persons with a tree nut allergy . The bark of Drimys winteri ("canelo" or "winter's bark") is used as a substitute for pepper in cold and temperate regions of Chile and Argentina , where it
2324-483: The Chera Dynasty , famous for exporting black pepper and various other spices, gets mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade with Roman Empire , Egypt , Mesopotamia , Levant , and Yemen . Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of commodity money . The legacy of this trade remains in some Western legal systems that recognize
2407-404: The genus Capsicum , which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae , cultivated for their pungency . Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add "heat" to dishes. Capsaicin and the related capsaicinoids give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically . Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind
2490-439: The pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments , nasal sprays , and dermal patches to relieve pain. A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer . Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as
2573-441: The 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's native Sichuan pepper (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant). Marco Polo testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China, when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay ( Hangzhou ): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by one of
Naga Viper pepper - Misplaced Pages Continue
2656-496: The 14th century, but the mortar and pestle used earlier for crushing pepper have remained a popular method for centuries, as well. Enhancing the flavour profile of peppercorns (including piperine and essential oils), prior to processing, has been attempted through the postharvest application of ultraviolet-C light (UV-C). [REDACTED] Media related to Piper nigrum at Wikimedia Commons [REDACTED] Data related to Piper nigrum at Wikispecies [REDACTED] Pepper at
2739-525: The 16th century. Black peppercorns were found stuffed in the nostrils of Ramesses II , placed there as part of the mummification rituals shortly after his death in 1213 BCE. Little else is known about the use of pepper in ancient Egypt and how it reached the Nile from the Malabar Coast of South Asia. Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the fourth century BCE, though it
2822-687: The Balkans, where they came to be processed into paprika . The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely through Portuguese and Spanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including Goa , Sri Lanka , and Malacca . From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around
2905-567: The Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter Capsicum fruits. They called them "peppers" because, like black pepper ( Piper nigrum ), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods. Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between
2988-760: The Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Councils of State. Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages – and the monopoly on the trade held by Venice – was one of the inducements that led the Portuguese to seek a sea route to India. In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first person to reach India by sailing around Africa (see Age of Discovery ); asked by Arabs in Calicut (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seek Christians and spices". Though this first trip to India by way of
3071-491: The Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden , which sank in the summer of 1495. In 2021, archaeologists recovered more than 2000 peppercorns from the wreck, along with a variety of other spices and exotic foodstuffs including clove, ginger, saffron, and almond. The ship was carrying King Hans to a political summit at the time of its loss. The spices were likely intended for feasts at the summit, which would have included
3154-460: The Dutch in the period 1661–1663.7 As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade. It
3237-509: The Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 223 lbs." During the course of the Ming treasure voyages in the early 15th century, Admiral Zheng He and his expeditionary fleets returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became
3320-798: The Greek geographer Strabo , the early empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual trip to India and back. The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictable monsoon winds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up the Red Sea , from where the cargo was carried overland or via the Nile-Red Sea canal to the Nile River, barged to Alexandria , and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate
3403-660: The Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean. The Maluku Islands, historically known as the "Spice Islands," are a region in Indonesia known for producing nutmeg, mace, cloves, and pepper, and were a major source of these spices in the world. The presence of these spices in the Maluku Islands sparked European interest to buy them directly in
Naga Viper pepper - Misplaced Pages Continue
3486-523: The Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolized by Italian powers, especially Venice and Genoa . The rise of these city-states was funded in large part by the spice trade. A riddle authored by Saint Aldhelm , a seventh-century Bishop of Sherborne , sheds some light on black pepper's role in England at that time: I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover, Yet within I bear
3569-425: The Middle Ages, pepper was a luxury item , affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available, as well. In addition, people of the time certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable; it is true that piperine , the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at
3652-581: The New World and of chili peppers . Chili peppers—some of which, when dried, are similar in shape and taste to long pepper—were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe. Before the 16th century, pepper was being grown in Java , Sunda , Sumatra , Madagascar , Malaysia, and everywhere in Southeast Asia. These areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally. Ports in
3735-676: The New World and the Old World called the Columbian exchange . Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike Piper vines, which grow naturally only in the tropics , chilies could be grown in temperate climates . By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in
3818-476: The Roman Empire , that pepper was "a favorite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery". Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as collateral or even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall. Alaric , king of the Visigoths , included 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom he demanded from Rome when he besieged
3901-863: The availability of different types of chili powder , each offering its own taste and heat level. Chili peppers originated in Central or South America and were first cultivated in Mexico. European explorers brought chili peppers back to the Old World in the late 16th century as part of the Columbian Exchange , which led to the cultivation of multiple varieties across the world for food and traditional medicine. Five Capsicum species have been widely cultivated: annuum , baccatum , chinense , frutescens , and pubescens . Capsicum plants originated in modern-day Peru and Bolivia , and have been
3984-403: The base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is fully mature, and still hard; if allowed to ripen completely, the fruits lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes. Black pepper is native either to Southeast Asia or South Asia . Within the genus Piper , it
4067-446: The berries, which may also yield an essential oil by extraction . White pepper consists solely of the seed of the ripe fruit of the pepper plant, with the thin darker-coloured skin (flesh) of the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by a process known as retting , where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week so the flesh of the peppercorn softens and decomposes ; rubbing then removes what remains of
4150-533: The chemical compound piperine , which is a different kind of spiciness from that of capsaicin characteristic of chili peppers . It is ubiquitous in the Western world as a seasoning , and is often paired with salt and available on dining tables in shakers or mills . The word pepper derives from Old English pipor , Latin piper , and Greek : πέπερι . The Greek likely derives from Dravidian pippali , meaning "long pepper". Sanskrit pippali shares
4233-601: The chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s. Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly coloured fruits of species of Capsicum . Botanically they are berries . The plants are small, 20 to 60 centimetres (7.9 to 23.6 in) depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots, greenhouses , or commercially in polytunnels . The plants are perennial , provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If
SECTION 50
#17327937458104316-622: The city in the fifth century. After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the spice trade , first the Persians and then the Arabs ; Innes Miller cites the account of Cosmas Indicopleustes , who travelled east to India, as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century". By the end of the Early Middle Ages , the central portions of the spice trade were firmly under Islamic control. Once into
4399-400: The concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small. Salt is a much more effective preservative, and salt-cured meats were common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices certainly played a role in improving the taste of long-preserved meats. Archaeological evidence of pepper consumption in late medieval Northern Europe comes from excavations on
4482-438: The crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants. Birds do not have
4565-573: The eyes or any sensitive body parts. Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation , sweating , vomiting , and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization. Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including Auramine O , Chrysoidine , Sudan stains I to IV , Para red , and Rhodamine B to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by liquid chromatography used together with mass spectrometry . The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist José de Acosta noted
4648-492: The fermentation and other processing removes the fruit layer (which also contains some of the spicy piperine). Other flavours also commonly develop in this process, some of which are described as off-flavours when in excess: Primarily 3-methylindole (pig manure-like), 4-methylphenol (horse manure), 3-methylphenol (phenolic), and butyric acid (cheese). The aroma of pepper is attributed to rotundone (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl) azulene -1(2H)-one),
4731-529: The fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Sometimes the outer layer is removed from the seed through other mechanical, chemical, or biological methods. Ground white pepper is commonly used in Chinese , Thai , and Portuguese cuisines . It finds occasional use in other cuisines in salads, light-coloured sauces, and mashed potatoes as a substitute for black pepper, because black pepper would visibly stand out. However, white pepper lacks certain compounds present in
4814-795: The fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest. Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F), that is moist but not waterlogged. The seeds germinate only when warm, close to 21 °C (70 °F). The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to 12 °C (54 °F); and are sensitive to cold. The flowers can self-pollinate . However, at extremely high temperatures, 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit. For flowering, Capsicum
4897-474: The fruits. They are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola . In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi . Chilies are present in many cuisines. In Peru, Papa a la huancaina is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and aji amarillo chilies. In Thailand, kaeng tai pla fish curry
4980-658: The highest diversity of cultivated Capsicum ; it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. The largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas , species with small round fruits including C. eximium , C. cardenasii , C. eshbaughii , and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties. When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached
5063-572: The items in Rome, and, elsewhere, he cites a figure of 100 million sesterces. Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the Roman Empire. Apicius ' De re coquinaria , a third-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the first century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. Edward Gibbon wrote, in The History of the Decline and Fall of
SECTION 60
#17327937458105146-588: The leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening up to 7 to 15 cm (2.8 to 5.9 in) as the fruit matures. Pepper can be grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to flooding, moist, well-drained, and rich in organic matter. The vines do not do well over an altitude of 900 m (3,000 ft) above sea level. The plants are propagated by cuttings about 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 in) long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as
5229-434: The main measure. Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators . A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a hemipteran bug, the risk of disease caused by a Fusarium fungus carried by the insects is reduced. As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds. A wide range of intensity
5312-512: The most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20% of all spice imports. Black pepper is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia, and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern Thailand and in Malaysia , its most important source was India, particularly the Malabar Coast , in what is now the state of Kerala . The lost ancient port city of Muziris of
5395-469: The mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it
5478-548: The outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6 and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the capsaicin found in chili peppers . The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains aroma -contributing terpenes , including germacrene (11%), limonene (10%), pinene (10%), alpha-phellandrene (9%), and beta-caryophyllene (7%), which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, as
5561-530: The outer layer of the drupe, resulting in a different overall flavour. Green pepper, like black pepper, is made from unripe drupes. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a way that retains the green colour, such as with sulfur dioxide , canning , or freeze-drying . Pickled peppercorns, also green, are unripe drupes preserved in brine or vinegar . Fresh, unpreserved green pepper drupes are used in some cuisines like Thai cuisine and Tamil cuisine . Their flavour has been described as "spicy and fresh", with
5644-640: The pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf mulch and manure , and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils, the young plants require watering every other day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and then typically for seven years. The cuttings are usually cultivars , selected both for yield and quality of fruit. A single stem bears 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two fruits at
5727-494: The pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come. With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, Malabar black pepper was now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. Pliny the Elder 's Natural History tells us the prices in Rome around 77 CE: "Long pepper ... is 15 denarii per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains, "There
5810-416: The pepper, accelerating enzymes that cause browning during drying. The pepper drupes can also be dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper skin around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer containing melanoidin . Once dry, the spice is called black peppercorn. After the peppercorns are dried, pepper powder for culinary uses is obtained by crushing
5893-666: The same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources. The English word is from from Classical Nahuatl chīlli with the same meaning. The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile . While pepper originally meant the genus Piper , not Capsicum , the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster record both usages. The three primary spellings are chili , chile and chilli , all recognized by dictionaries. The volatile oil in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching
5976-582: The same meaning. In the 16th century, people began using pepper to also mean the New World chili pepper (genus Capsicum ), which is not closely related. Processed peppercorns come in a variety of colours, any one of which may be used in food preparation, especially common peppercorn sauce . Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe drupe of the pepper plant. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures cell walls in
6059-440: The same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific pain receptor . Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under
6142-588: The same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread to Melanesia , Micronesia , and other Pacific Islands via their monopoly of the Manila galleons . Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in Canton, China , and Nagasaki , Japan . The earliest known mention of
6225-471: The southern tip of Africa was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and eventually gained much greater control of trade on the Arabian Sea. The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated. However, the Portuguese monopolized the spice trade for 150 years. Portuguese even became the lingua franca of
6308-456: The supposed aphrodisiac power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's spiritual health . In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle." Black pepper Black pepper ( Piper nigrum ) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae , cultivated for its fruit (the peppercorn ), which
6391-409: The term " peppercorn rent " as a token payment for something that is, essentially, a gift. The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of long pepper , the dried fruit of closely related Piper longum . The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just piper . In fact, the popularity of long pepper did not entirely decline until the discovery of
6474-569: The then known world. The spice trade made Portugal rich. However in the 17th century, the Portuguese lost most of their valuable Indian Ocean trade to the Dutch and the English , who, taking advantage of the Spanish rule over Portugal during the Iberian Union (1580–1640), occupied by force almost all Portuguese interests in the area. The pepper ports of Malabar began to trade increasingly with
6557-899: The total. Species of Capsicum that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified phylogenetic tree , with examples of cultivars: C. annuum : bell peppers , [REDACTED] wax , cayenne , jalapeño , Thai , chiltepin , New Mexico chile [REDACTED] C. frutescens : tabasco , malagueta , labuyo , piri piri , kambuzi [REDACTED] C. chinense : hottest peppers, e.g. naga , habanero , datil , Scotch bonnet [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] C. baccatum : aji [REDACTED] C. pubescens : rocoto , chile de caballo [REDACTED] C. eximium C. lycianthoides The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl- N -vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids . Pure capsaicin
6640-549: The wild source gradually decreasing as the quality and yield of the cultivated variety improved. No successful grafting of commercial pepper on wild pepper has been achieved to date. In 2020, Vietnam was the world's largest producer and exporter of black peppercorns, producing 270,192 tonnes or 36% of the world total (table). Other major producers were Brazil , Indonesia , India , Sri Lanka , China , and Malaysia . Global pepper production varies annually according to crop management, disease, and weather. Peppercorns are among
6723-510: The world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food ), Mexican, Thai, Indian, New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century Asian cuisine , chili peppers are commonly used across many regions. Chili is a key ingredient in many curries , providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether. Chilies with
6806-474: Was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as
6889-536: Was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford. By the time of the early Roman Empire , especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea direct to Chera dynasty southern India 's Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea . According to
#809190