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112-635: Peruvians ( Spanish : peruanos /peruanas ) are the citizens of Peru . What is now Peru has been inhabited for several millennia by cultures such as the Caral before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Peruvian population decreased from an estimated 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases carried by the Spanish . Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers in 1532 under colonial rule , mixing widely with each other and with Native Peruvians . During
224-421: A chumpi which protects the lower back when working in the fields is also worn. Men's fine dress includes a woolen waistcoat, similar to a sleeveless juyuna as worn by women but referred to as a chaleco , and often richly decorated. The most distinctive part of men's clothing is the handwoven poncho . Nearly every Quechua man and boy has a poncho, generally red decorated with intricate designs. Each district has
336-537: A Quechua word for a pit cooking technique used in Peru, includes several types of meat such as chicken, beef, pork, lamb, and/or mutton; tubers such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, yucca , uqa / ok’a ( oca in Spanish), and mashwa ; other vegetables such as maize/corn and fava beans; seasonings; and sometimes cheese in a small pot and/or tamales . Guinea pigs are also raised for meat. Other foods and crops include
448-757: A Spanish-based creole language called Chavacano developed in the southern Philippines. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996. The local languages of the Philippines also retain significant Spanish influence, with many words derived from Mexican Spanish , owing to the administration of the islands by Spain through New Spain until 1821, until direct governance from Madrid afterwards to 1898. Quechuas Quechua people ( / ˈ k ɛ tʃ u ə / , US also / ˈ k ɛ tʃ w ɑː / ; Spanish: [ˈketʃwa] ) , Quichua people or Kichwa people may refer to any of
560-603: A considerable number of words from Arabic , as well as a minor influence from the Germanic Gothic language through the period of Visigoth rule in Iberia. In addition, many more words were borrowed from Latin through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both Classical Latin and Renaissance Latin , the form of Latin in use at that time. According to
672-478: A distinctive pattern. In some communities such as Huilloc, Patacancha, and many villages in the Lares Valley ponchos are worn as daily attire. However, most men use their ponchos on special occasions such as festivals, village meetings, weddings, etc. As with the women, ajotas, sandals made from recycled tires, are the standard footwear. They are cheap and durable. A ch'ullu , a knitted hat with earflaps,
784-522: A dramatic change in the pronunciation of its sibilant consonants , known in Spanish as the reajuste de las sibilantes , which resulted in the distinctive velar [x] pronunciation of the letter ⟨j⟩ and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic interdental [θ] ("th-sound") for the letter ⟨z⟩ (and for ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ ). See History of Spanish (Modern development of
896-431: A family to accomplish a large private project, for example, house construction, and in turn can expect to be similarly helped later with a project of their own. In almost all Quechua ethnic groups, many traditional handicrafts are an important aspect of material culture . This includes a tradition of weaving handed down from Inca times or earlier, using cotton, wool (from llamas , alpacas , guanacos , and vicuñas ), and
1008-807: A few hundred in Brazil. They have an only slight sense of common identity. The various Quechua dialects are in some cases so different that mutual understanding is not possible. Quechua was spoken not only by the Incas , but also by long-term enemies of the Inca Empire , including the Huanca ( Wanka is a Quechua dialect spoken today in the Huancayo area ) and the Chanka (the Chanca dialect of Ayacucho ) of Peru, and
1120-482: A first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos ( Ilustrados ). Despite a public education system set up by the colonial government, by the end of Spanish rule in 1898, only about 10% of the population had knowledge of Spanish, mostly those of Spanish descent or elite standing. Spanish continued to be official and used in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American administration after
1232-523: A gradual European immigration from Spain , Italy , Croatia , France , Germany , and Austria . Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers in the sugar plantations of the north coast and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society. Peruvian Spanish is the main language of 82.6% majorly spoken in the Coastal cities, It is the primary language of the country used for
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#17327585093731344-606: A history of involvement in the slave trade, with slave imports originating from Ghana , Angola , Nigeria , the Republic of Congo , the Democratic Republic of Congo , Mozambique , and Madagascar . As in other Spanish colonies, slaves were typically imported to perform labor work in sugar cane, cotton fields and vineyards, very few of them in gold mines in Cuzco. The Spaniards brought 500 Africans from Guinea as part of
1456-478: A long history in the territory of the current-day United States dating back to the 16th century. In the wake of the 1848 Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty , hundreds of thousands of Spanish speakers became a minoritized community in the United States. The 20th century saw further massive growth of Spanish speakers in areas where they had been hitherto scarce. According to the 2020 census, over 60 million people of
1568-471: A loss of both ethnic identity and the Quechua language. This is also a result of steady migration to large cities (especially Lima ), which has resulted in acculturation by Hispanic society there. Quechua people cultivate and eat a variety of foods. They domesticated potatoes, which originated in the region, and cultivated thousands of potato varieties, which are used for food and medicine. Climate change
1680-467: A multitude of natural dyes , and incorporating numerous woven patterns ( pallay ). Houses are usually constructed using air-dried clay bricks ( tika , or in Spanish adobe ), or branches and clay mortar (" wattle and daub "), with the roofs being covered with straw, reeds, or puna grass ( ichu ). The disintegration of the traditional economy, for example, regionally through mining activities and accompanying proletarian social structures, has usually led to
1792-508: A primarily Hassaniya Arabic -speaking territory, Spanish was officially spoken as the language of the colonial administration during the late 19th and 20th centuries. Today, Spanish is present in the partially-recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as its secondary official language, and in the Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf ( Algeria ), where the Spanish language is still taught as
1904-403: A religious significance, but this belief is not uniform across communities. Quinine , which is found naturally in the bark of the cinchona tree, is known to be used by Quechuas people for malaria -like symptoms. When chewed, coca acts as a mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue; it is also used to alleviate altitude sickness . Coca leaves are chewed during work in
2016-563: A second language features characteristics involving the variability of the vowel system. While far from its heyday during the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , the Spanish language has some presence in northern Morocco , stemming for example from the availability of certain Spanish-language media. According to a 2012 survey by Morocco's Royal Institute for Strategic Studies (IRES), penetration of Spanish in Morocco reaches 4.6% of
2128-531: A second language, largely by Cuban educators. The number of Spanish speakers is unknown. Spanish is also an official language of the African Union . Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish administration in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization , it was the language of government, trade, and education, and was spoken as
2240-638: A song about a bloody river. In their myth of Wiraquchapampa , the Q'ero people describe the victory of the Apus over the Spaniards. Of the myths still alive today, the Inkarrí myth common in southern Peru is especially interesting; it forms a cultural element linking the Quechua groups throughout the region from Ayacucho to Cusco . Some Quechuas consider classic products of the region such as corn beer , chicha , coca leaves , and local potatoes as having
2352-515: A total of about 270,000 (and 22,000 men) according to official figures. The sterilization program lasted for over five years between 1996 and 2001. During this period, women were coerced into forced sterilization. Sterilizations were often performed under dangerous and unsanitary conditions, as the doctors were pressured to perform operations under unrealistic government quotas, which made it impossible to properly inform women and receive their consent. The Bolivian film director Jorge Sanjinés dealt with
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#17327585093732464-416: Is cognate to the root word of satisfacer ("to satisfy"), and hecho ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of satisfecho ("satisfied"). Compare the examples in the following table: Some consonant clusters of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table: In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent
2576-666: Is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin spoken on the Iberian Peninsula of Europe . Today, it is a global language with about 500 million native speakers, mainly in the Americas and Spain , and about 600 million when including second language speakers. Spanish is the official language of 20 countries , as well as one of the six official languages of
2688-597: Is a mixture of styles from Pre-Spanish days and Spanish Colonial peasant dress. Starting at puberty, Quechua girls begin wearing multiple layers of petticoats and skirts, showing off the family's wealth and making her a more desirable bride. Married women also wear multiple layers of petticoats and skirts. Younger Quechua men generally wear Western-style clothing, the most popular being synthetic football shirts and tracksuit trousers. In certain regions, women also generally wear Western-style clothing. Older men still wear dark wool knee-length handwoven bayeta pants. A woven belt called
2800-454: Is estimated that about 486 million people speak Spanish as a native language , making it the second most spoken language by number of native speakers . An additional 75 million speak Spanish as a second or foreign language , making it the fourth most spoken language in the world overall after English, Mandarin Chinese, and Hindi with a total number of 538 million speakers. Spanish is also
2912-504: Is expected to reach approximately 46 - 51 million in 2050. As of 2017, 79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas. Major cities include Lima , home to over 9.5 million people, Arequipa , Trujillo , Chiclayo , Piura , Iquitos , Huancayo , Cusco and Pucallpa , all of which reported more than 250,000 inhabitants. The largest expatriate Peruvian communities are in the United States , South America ( Argentina , Chile , Venezuela and Brazil ), Europe (Spain, Italy, France and
3024-555: Is frequently worn. The first ch'ullu that a child receives is traditionally knitted by their father. In the Ausangate region, chullos are often ornately adorned with white beads and large tassels called t'ikas. Men sometimes wear a felt hat called a sombrero over the top of the ch'ullu decorated with centillo , finely decorated hat bands. Since ancient times men have worn small woven pouches called ch'uspa used to carry their coca leaves. The following list of Quechua ethnic groups
3136-708: Is heavily influenced by Venezuelan Spanish. In addition to sharing most of its borders with Spanish-speaking countries, the creation of Mercosur in the early 1990s induced a favorable situation for the promotion of Spanish language teaching in Brazil . In 2005, the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President , making it mandatory for schools to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil. In September 2016 this law
3248-591: Is in the Yunga regions (west and just below the Andean chain of northern Peru), (i.e., Piura and Lambayeque ), where sugarcane, lemon, and mango production are still of importance. Important communities are found in the Morropón Province , such as in the city of Chulucanas . One of them is Yapatera , a community in the same city, as well as smaller farming communities like Pabur or La Matanza and even in
3360-585: Is lower in rural areas (83%) than in urban areas (96.8%). According to the 2017 Census, Christianity is the largest religion in Peru , with Roman Catholics having the most adherents (76%), other Christians 18.6%, Other 0.5%, and non-religious 5%. Lord of Miracles is a mural painted by an Angolan slave in the 17th century of Jesus Christ that is venerated in Lima and the main Catholic festivity in Peru and one of
3472-583: Is more acidic, they taste totally different in other countries. Peru gave to the world potatoes with more than 3000 species, introduced to Europe by the Spaniards in 1532 after the Conquista the Quinoa, both from the highlands. Ancient Peruvians were harvesting potatoes between 8000 and 5000 years according to scientific research. Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots. In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region;
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3584-531: Is no special law for ethnic groups or reserves; they are Peruvians and are legally treated as such. In the present day, some isolated indigenous communities still live in the Peruvian Amazon. Though living far from other settlements, these communities enjoy the same rights and constitutional protections as Peruvians of other backgrounds. European descendants total 5-20% of the total population. Most of them are descendants of Spanish settlers that came to
3696-732: Is related to Castile ( Castilla or archaically Castiella ), the kingdom where the language was originally spoken. The name Castile , in turn, is usually assumed to be derived from castillo ('castle'). In the Middle Ages , the language spoken in Castile was generically referred to as Romance and later also as Lengua vulgar . Later in the period, it gained geographical specification as Romance castellano ( romanz castellano , romanz de Castiella ), lenguaje de Castiella , and ultimately simply as castellano (noun). Different etymologies have been suggested for
3808-844: Is spoken by very small communities in Angola due to Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned for their country's independence. Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in Africa, namely the cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the Canary Islands , located in the Atlantic Ocean some 100 km (62 mi) off
3920-813: Is the de facto national language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of New Mexico . The language has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of Los Angeles , Miami , San Antonio , New York , San Francisco , Dallas , Tucson and Phoenix of the Arizona Sun Corridor , as well as more recently, Chicago , Las Vegas , Boston , Denver , Houston , Indianapolis , Philadelphia , Cleveland , Salt Lake City , Atlanta , Nashville , Orlando , Tampa , Raleigh and Baltimore-Washington, D.C. due to 20th- and 21st-century immigration. Although Spanish has no official recognition in
4032-543: Is threatening their potato and other traditional crops but they are undertaking conservation and adaptation efforts. Quinoa is another staple crop grown by the Quechua people. Ch’arki (the origin of the English word jerky ) is a dried (and sometimes salted) meat. It was traditionally made from llama meat that was sun- and freeze-dried in the Andean sun and cold nights, but is now also often made from horse and beef, with variation among countries. Pachamanca ,
4144-496: The quena and the tinya were two common instruments. Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango . African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón , a percussion instrument. Peruvian folk dances include marinera , tondero and huayno . Spanish language Spanish ( español ) or Castilian ( castellano )
4256-688: The Indigenous peoples of South America who speak the Quechua languages , which originated among the Indigenous people of Peru . Although most Quechua speakers are native to Peru, there are some significant populations in Ecuador , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , and Argentina . The most common Quechua dialect is Southern Quechua . The Kichwa people of Ecuador speak the Kichwa dialect ; in Colombia,
4368-765: The Inga people speak Inga Kichwa . The Quechua word for a Quechua speaker is runa or nuna ("person"); the plural is runakuna or nunakuna ("people"). "Quechua speakers call themselves Runa -- simply translated, "the people". Some historical Quechua people are: The speakers of Quechua total some 5.1 million people in Peru, 1.8 million in Bolivia, 2.5 million in Ecuador (Hornberger and King, 2001), and according to Ethnologue (2006) 33,800 in Chile, 55,500 in Argentina, and
4480-757: The Kañari (Cañari) in Ecuador. Quechua was spoken by some of these people, for example, the Wanka, before the Incas of Cusco , while other people, especially in Bolivia but also in Ecuador, adopted Quechua only in Inca times or afterward. Quechua became Peru's second official language in 1969 under the military dictatorship of Juan Velasco Alvarado . There have been later tendencies toward nation-building among Quechua speakers, particularly in Ecuador (Kichwa) but also in Bolivia, where there are only slight linguistic differences from
4592-553: The Puna . The typical Andean community extends over several altitude ranges and thus includes the cultivation of a variety of arable crops and/or livestock. The land is usually owned by the local community ( ayllu ) and is either cultivated jointly or redistributed annually. Beginning with the colonial era and intensifying after the South American states had gained their independence, large landowners appropriated all or most of
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4704-568: The Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005. Spanish has historically had a significant presence on the Dutch Caribbean islands of Aruba , Bonaire and Curaçao ( ABC Islands ) throughout the centuries and in present times. The majority of the populations of each island (especially Aruba) speaking Spanish at varying although often high degrees of fluency. The local language Papiamentu (Papiamento on Aruba)
4816-508: The Spanish–American War but was eventually replaced by English as the primary language of administration and education by the 1920s. Nevertheless, despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines upon independence in 1946, alongside English and Filipino , a standardized version of Tagalog . Spanish was briefly removed from official status in 1973 but reimplemented under
4928-548: The United Nations . Spanish is the world's second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese ; the world's fourth-most spoken language overall after English , Mandarin Chinese, and Hindustani ( Hindi - Urdu ); and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. The country with the largest population of native speakers is Mexico . Spanish is part of the Ibero-Romance language group , in which
5040-768: The rice fields during the Viceroyalty and to replace the African slaves, as laborers during the abolition of slavery itself. Despite the presence of Peruvians of Asian heritage being quite recent, in the past decade, they have made significant advancements in business and political fields; a past president ( Alberto Fujimori ), several past cabinet members, and one member of the Peruvian Congress are of Chinese or Japanese origin. There are also large numbers of Arab Peruvians, mostly Palestinians , Lebanese , Syrians , and Iraqis . After independence, there has been
5152-480: The 13th century. Spanish colonialism in the early modern period spurred the introduction of the language to overseas locations, most notably to the Americas. As a Romance language, Spanish is a descendant of Latin. Around 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary is Latin in origin, including Latin borrowings from Ancient Greek. Alongside English and French , it is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout
5264-406: The 19th century. Recently, Peru has seen an influx of American senior citizens and businessmen looking for permanent residency to settle in the country, due to the lower cost of living, gastronomy, Amazon forest environment, and the ease of doing business in Peru due to liberalized economic policy in the 21st century. Afro-Peruvians constitute 3-10% of the population. Peru, as a Spanish colony, has
5376-404: The 2021–2022 school year alone. The local business process outsourcing industry has also helped boost the language's economic prospects. Today, while the actual number of proficient Spanish speakers is around 400,000, or under 0.5% of the population, a new generation of Spanish speakers in the Philippines has likewise emerged, though speaker estimates vary widely. Aside from standard Spanish,
5488-595: The 20th century, Spanish was introduced to Equatorial Guinea and the Western Sahara , and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as Spanish Harlem in New York City . For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language . Spanish is the primary language in 20 countries worldwide. As of 2023, it
5600-760: The Education Council of the Quechua Nation ( Consejo Educativo de la Nación Quechua , CENAQ), which is responsible for Quechua instruction or bilingual intercultural schools in the Quechua-speaking regions of Bolivia. Some Quechua speakers say that if nation-states in Latin America had been built following the European pattern, they should be a single, independent nation. Despite their ethnic diversity and linguistic distinctions,
5712-654: The Equatoguinean education system and is the primary language used in government and business. Whereas it is not the mother tongue of virtually any of its speakers, the vast majority of the population is proficient in Spanish. The Instituto Cervantes estimates that 87.7% of the population is fluent in Spanish. The proportion of proficient Spanish speakers in Equatorial Guinea exceeds the proportion of proficient speakers in other West and Central African nations of their respective colonial languages. Spanish
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#17327585093735824-705: The Iberian Peninsula. These languages included Proto-Basque , Iberian , Lusitanian , Celtiberian and Gallaecian . The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era , the most important influences on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring Romance languages — Mozarabic ( Andalusi Romance ), Navarro-Aragonese , Leonese , Catalan/Valencian , Portuguese , Galician , Occitan , and later, French and Italian . Spanish also borrowed
5936-486: The Ica Region, in cities like Cañete , Chincha , Ica , Nazca and Acarí in the border with the Arequipa Region . The African descendants brought their own dances and drumming music style, creating some instruments like the "Cajon" and some culinary art characterized by their delicious taste. Some of the best soccer players in Peru are Afro-descendants. Relatively unmixed African populations exist in El Carmen en Chincha Alta Ica, Peru. Another large Afro-Peruvian presence
6048-424: The Old Spanish sibilants) for details. The Gramática de la lengua castellana , written in Salamanca in 1492 by Elio Antonio de Nebrija , was the first grammar written for a modern European language. According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to Queen Isabella I , she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire. In his introduction to
6160-497: The Republic, there has been a gradual immigration of European people (especially from Spain and Italy , and to a lesser extent from Germany , France , Croatia , and the British Isles ). Chinese and Japanese arrived in large numbers at the end of the 19th century. With 31.2 million inhabitants according to the 2017 Census . Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America . Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000, and its population
6272-424: The Spanish-speaking world, Spanish is called not only español but also castellano (Castilian), the language from the Kingdom of Castile , contrasting it with other languages spoken in Spain such as Galician , Basque , Asturian , Catalan/Valencian , Aragonese , Occitan and other minor languages. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the official language of
6384-502: The U.S. population were of Hispanic or Hispanic American by origin. In turn, 41.8 million people in the United States aged five or older speak Spanish at home, or about 13% of the population. Spanish predominates in the unincorporated territory of Puerto Rico , where it is also an official language along with English. Spanish is by far the most common second language in the country, with over 50 million total speakers if non-native or second-language speakers are included. While English
6496-424: The United Kingdom), Japan , Australia , and Canada . In the 2017 Census, those of age 12 and above were asked what ancestral origin they belong to, with 60% of Peruvians self-identifying as mestizos , 20% as Quechuas , 5% as European , 3% as Afro-Peruvian , 2% as Aymaras , 0.6% as Amazonians , and 0.1% as Asian . Large indigenous populations live in the southern Andes , with other large populations found on
6608-399: The administration of Ferdinand Marcos two months later. It remained an official language until the ratification of the present constitution in 1987, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language. Additionally, the constitution, in its Article XIV, stipulates that the Government shall provide the people of the Philippines with a Spanish-language translation of
6720-418: The biggest processions around the world. Every year, in October, hundreds of thousands of pilgrims from all walks of life, dress in purple to celebrate the also known "Black Christ" in a religious procession through the streets of Lima. The story tells that some earthquakes in Lima during the 17th and 18th Centuries destroyed most of the city leaving only that mural that was painted by the Angolan slave in 1651 as
6832-511: The case of the community of Sarayaku has become well known among the Kichwa of the lowlands, who after years of struggle were able to successfully resist expropriation and exploitation of the rain forest for petroleum recovery . A distinction is made between two primary types of joint work. In the case of mink'a , people work together for projects of common interest (such as the construction of communal facilities). Ayni is, in contrast, reciprocal assistance, whereby members of an ayllu help
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#17327585093736944-497: The cheek for hi and bye. It is not uncommon to see couples showing affection in public places. Peruvians also have respect for elders, people of higher positions at work, skilled professionals and educated people. Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature . After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became
7056-566: The classic hispanus or hispanicus took the suffix -one from Vulgar Latin , as happened with other words such as bretón (Breton) or sajón (Saxon). Like the other Romance languages , the Spanish language evolved from Vulgar Latin , which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans during the Second Punic War , beginning in 210 BC. Several pre-Roman languages (also called Paleohispanic languages )—some distantly related to Latin as Indo-European languages , and some that are not related at all—were previously spoken in
7168-629: The colonies were called criollos , people of mixed Indigenous and Spanish descent were called mestizos, those of African and Spanish descent were called mulatos , and those of Indigenous and African descent were called zambos . Genetic analysis indicates that Peruvian Mestizos are of predominantly Indigenous ancestry. Most mestizos are urban dwellers and show stronger European inheritance in regions like Lima Region , La Libertad Region , Callao Region , Cajamarca Region , San Martin Region , Piura Region , Lambayeque Region , and Arequipa Region . Ethnic groups of Indigenous origin constitute 13% of
7280-446: The consonant written b (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is no difference between the pronunciation of orthographic b and v . Typical of Spanish (as also of neighboring Gascon extending as far north as the Gironde estuary , and found in a small area of Calabria ), attributed by some scholars to a Basque substratum was the mutation of Latin initial f into h- whenever it
7392-443: The country beyond the Andes Mountains in the Amazon basin . This region is rapidly becoming urbanized. Important urban centers include Iquitos , Nauta , Puerto Maldonado , Pucallpa and Yurimaguas . This region is home to numerous ethnic groups, though they do not constitute a large proportion of the total population. Examples of ethnic groups residing in eastern Peru include the Shipibo , Urarina , Cocama, and Aguaruna . There
7504-430: The country during the colonial era, while others are descendants of other European ethnic groups that arrived in the 19th and 20th centuries like Italians , Germans , British , French , Irish , Dutch , Portuguese , Polish , and Croats . Most of them also live in the largest cities, generally in the northern cities of Peru: Trujillo , Chiclayo and Piura , and also in the capital Lima . The city of Arequipa in
7616-404: The country's constitution. In recent years changing attitudes among non-Spanish speaking Filipinos have helped spur a revival of the language, and starting in 2009 Spanish was reintroduced as part of the basic education curriculum in a number of public high schools, becoming the largest foreign language program offered by the public school system, with over 7,000 students studying the language in
7728-463: The elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures . The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu . Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions. During this period, most arts focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative. Arts stagnated after independence until
7840-408: The emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents. The Peruvian culture today is modern with global influences, always open to new trends and is constantly moving and changing in Music, Art, Literature. Peruvians are expressive, using hand gestures when talking and are tactile, expecting a kiss on
7952-524: The fields as well as during breaks in construction projects in Quechua provinces. Coca leaves are the raw material from which cocaine , one of Peru's most historically important exports, is chemically extracted. Many Indigenous women wear colorful traditional attire, complete with bowler-style hats . The hat has been worn by Quechua and Aymara women since the 1920s when it was brought to the country by British railway workers. They are still commonly worn today. The traditional dress worn by Quechua women today
8064-683: The following table: Spanish is marked by palatalization of the Latin double consonants ( geminates ) nn and ll (thus Latin annum > Spanish año , and Latin anellum > Spanish anillo ). The consonant written u or v in Latin and pronounced [w] in Classical Latin had probably " fortified " to a bilabial fricative /β/ in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with
8176-466: The former British colony of Belize (known until 1973 as British Honduras ) where English is the sole official language, according to the 2022 census, 54% of the total population are able to speak the language. Due to its proximity to Spanish-speaking countries and small existing native Spanish speaking minority, Trinidad and Tobago has implemented Spanish language teaching into its education system. The Trinidadian and Tobagonian government launched
8288-604: The grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire." From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered America and the Spanish East Indies via Spanish colonization of America . Miguel de Cervantes , author of Don Quixote , is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes ("the language of Cervantes"). In
8400-610: The highlights were the development in acoustics, aqueducts, silos to preserve grains, the terraces, the perfection of fitting the giant's boulders of 20 tons, astronomical observatories, the perfection with the solstice, the construction of entrances for the sunlight denoting meaning for every season, some of these constructions until today do not have a logical human explanation, on how they were constructed. Peruvian cuisine shows influences from Andean, Spanish, Chinese, Italian, Arab, African, and Japanese cooking. Common dishes include anticuchos , ceviche and pachamanca . Because of
8512-578: The import of slaves. The first group of Asians came in 1849 on the Danish ship named Federico Guillermo to replace slavery as part of the plan to abolish slavery in 1854 by replacing it with the Asian labor force. During the next 25 years, 100,000 Chinese arrived in Peru, hired in eight-year contracts from Macao , Hong Kong , Canton , and Fujian , including some Sangley people. They were hired for sugar cane fields, rice fields, extracting guano and constructing
8624-424: The issue of forced sterilization in 1969 in his Quechua-language feature film Yawar Mallku . Quechuas have been left out of their nation's regional economic growth in recent years. The World Bank has identified eight countries on the continent to have some of the highest inequality rates in the world. The Quechuas have been subject to these severe inequalities, as many of them have a much lower life expectancy than
8736-539: The land and forced the Native population into bondage (known in Ecuador as Huasipungo , from Kichwa wasipunku , "front door"). Harsh conditions of exploitation repeatedly led to revolts by the Indigenous farmers, which were forcibly suppressed. The largest of these revolts occurred in 1780–1781 under the leadership of Husiy Qawriyil Kunturkanki . Some Indigenous farmers re-occupied their ancestors' lands and expelled
8848-493: The landlords during the takeover of governments by dictatorships in the middle of the 20th century, such as in 1952 in Bolivia ( Víctor Paz Estenssoro ) and 1968 in Peru ( Juan Velasco Alvarado ). The agrarian reforms included the expropriation of large landowners. In Bolivia, there was a redistribution of the land to the Indigenous population as their private property. This disrupted traditional Quechua and Aymara culture based on communal ownership, but ayllus has been retained up to
8960-594: The language is also known as Castilian ( castellano ). The group evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The oldest Latin texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in the 9th century, and the first systematic written use of the language happened in Toledo , a prominent city of the Kingdom of Castile , in
9072-549: The language's hegemony in an intensely centralising Spanish state were established from the 18th century onward. Other European territories in which it is also widely spoken include Gibraltar and Andorra . Spanish is also spoken by immigrant communities in other European countries, such as the United Kingdom , France , Italy , and Germany . Spanish is an official language of the European Union . Today,
9184-694: The majority of the Spanish speakers live in Hispanic America . Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either de facto or de jure —of Argentina , Bolivia (co-official with 36 indigenous languages), Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , Cuba , Dominican Republic , Ecuador , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Mexico (co-official with 63 indigenous languages), Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay (co-official with Guaraní ), Peru (co-official with Quechua , Aymara , and "the other indigenous languages"), Puerto Rico (co-official with English), Uruguay , and Venezuela . Spanish language has
9296-640: The meat of llamas and alpacas as well as beans, barley, hot peppers, coriander, and peanuts. Up to the present time, Quechuas continue to be victims of political conflicts and ethnic persecution. In the internal conflict in Peru in the 1980s between the government and Sendero Luminoso about three-quarters of the estimated 70,000 death toll were Quechuas, whereas the war parties were without exception whites and mestizos (people with mixed descent from both Natives and Spaniards). The forced sterilization policy under Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori affected almost exclusively Quechua and Aymara women,
9408-574: The most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma . In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría , José María Arguedas , and César Vallejo . During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa , a leading member of the Latin American Boom . María Jesús Alvarado Rivera
9520-404: The mountain spirits ( apu ) as well as lesser local deities ( wak'a ), who are still venerated especially in southern Peru. The Quechuas came to terms with their repeated historical experience of tragedy in the form of various myths. These include the figure of Nak'aq or Pishtaco ("butcher"), the white murderer who sucks out the fat from the bodies of the Indigenous peoples he kills, and
9632-566: The mountainous region near Canchaque . Further south, the colonial city of Zaña or farming towns like Capote and Tuman in Lambayeque are also important regions with Afro-Peruvian presence. According to the 2017 census, 3-10% of the population identifies as having either Chinese or Japanese heritage. Peru has the largest population of Chinese descendants in Latin America since Peru became independent from Spain in 1821 and banned
9744-734: The northwest of the African mainland. The Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands traces its origins back to the Castilian conquest in the 15th century , and, in addition to a resemblance to Western Andalusian speech patterns, it also features strong influence from the Spanish varieties spoken in the Americas, which in turn have also been influenced historically by Canarian Spanish. The Spanish spoken in North Africa by native bilingual speakers of Arabic or Berber who also speak Spanish as
9856-505: The only standing wall after the quakes in 1655,1687 and 1746 8.6 magnitude earthquake. These facts contributed to the growth and the solidification of devoted veneration to the mural known as "Christ of Pachacamilla" Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian traditions, mainly Inca, and Hispanic heritage. It has also been influenced by various European, African, and Asian ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to
9968-566: The original Peruvian version. An indication of this effort is the umbrella organization of the Kichwa people in Ecuador, ECUARUNARI ( Ecuador Runakunapak Rikcharimuy ). Some Christian organizations also refer to a "Quechua people", such as the Christian shortwave radio station HCJB , "The Voice of the Andes" ( La Voz de los Andes ). The term "Quechua Nation" occurs in such contexts as the name of
10080-654: The other hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. However, from 1713 to 1923, it called the language castellano . The Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (a language guide published by the Royal Spanish Academy) states that, although the Royal Spanish Academy prefers to use the term español in its publications when referring to the Spanish language, both terms— español and castellano —are regarded as synonymous and equally valid. The term castellano
10192-598: The parliamentary officer Carlos Torres Caro refused their acceptance. Practically all Quechuas in the Andes have been nominally Catholic since colonial times. Nevertheless, traditional religious forms persist in many regions, blended with Christian elements – a fully integrated syncretism . Quechua ethnic groups also share traditional religions with other Andean peoples, particularly belief in Mother Earth ( Pachamama ), who grants fertility and to whom burnt offerings and libations are regularly made. Also important are
10304-533: The population. Many northern Moroccans have rudimentary knowledge of Spanish, with Spanish being particularly significant in areas adjacent to Ceuta and Melilla. Spanish also has a presence in the education system of the country (through either selected education centers implementing Spain's education system, primarily located in the North, or the availability of Spanish as foreign language subject in secondary education). In Western Sahara , formerly Spanish Sahara ,
10416-543: The present time in remote regions, such as in the Peruvian Quechua community of Q'ero . The struggle for land rights continues up to the present time to be a political focal point of everyday Quechua life. The Kichwa ethnic groups of Ecuador which are part of the ECUARUNARI association were recently able to regain communal land titles or the return of estates—in some cases through militant activity. Especially
10528-486: The public media, television, radio, newspapers, and the internet in general with very minimal exceptions. It coexists with several Indigenous languages, the most common Quechua ,13.9% and Aymara 1.6%, both spoken mostly in the Andes, Ashaninka 0.3% in the Rainforest. Other Native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 0.8% and 0.2% of Peruvians, respectively. Literacy was estimated at 94.2% in 2017; this rate
10640-536: The railroads in the Andes in semi-slavery working conditions. Geographically Chinese descendant communities are found throughout the Peruvian upper Amazon , including cities such as Yurimaguas , Nauta , Iquitos and the north-central coast ( Lambayeque and Trujillo ) and the capital Lima. In contrast to the Japanese community in Peru, the Chinese appear to have intermarried much more since they came to work in
10752-485: The regional average, and many communities lack access to basic health services. Perceived ethnic discrimination continues to play a role at the parliamentary level. When the newly elected Peruvian members of parliament Hilaria Supa Huamán and María Sumire swore their oath of office in Quechua—for the first time in the history of Peru in an Indigenous language—the Peruvian parliamentary president Martha Hildebrandt and
10864-514: The south of Peru displays the majority of Spanish descendants in the south. Cajamarca in the highlands, parts of San Martin in the Rupa-Rupa or Amazonian Andes Area; Oxapampa and Pozuzo were populated by German and Austrian settlers also in the Rupa-Rupa or Amazonian Andes area. A considerable European population migrated to Peru seeking economic opportunity in the booming oil, mining, fishing, sugar, cotton, guano, and rubber industries in
10976-436: The southern and central coast due to massive internal labor migration from the Andes to coastal cities over the past four decades. Mestizos compose 40%- 60.2% of the total population. The term traditionally denotes Peruvians of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry (mostly Spanish ancestry). This term was part of the caste classification used during colonial times, whereby people of exclusive Spanish descent who were born in
11088-537: The term español (Spanish). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, español derives from the Occitan word espaignol and that, in turn, derives from the Vulgar Latin * hispaniolus ('of Hispania'). Hispania was the Roman name for the entire Iberian Peninsula . There are other hypotheses apart from the one suggested by the Royal Spanish Academy. Spanish philologist Ramón Menéndez Pidal suggested that
11200-444: The theories of Ramón Menéndez Pidal , local sociolects of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of Burgos , and this dialect was later brought to the city of Toledo , where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century. In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, Leonese , and, according to some authors,
11312-640: The third most used language on the Internet , after English and Chinese. Spanish is the official language of Spain . Upon the emergence of the Castilian Crown as the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the Middle Ages, the Romance vernacular associated with this polity became increasingly used in instances of prestige and influence, and the distinction between "Castilian" and "Spanish" started to become blurred. Hard policies imposing
11424-527: The total population. The two major ethnic groups are the Quechuas (belonging to various cultural subgroups), followed by the Aymara , mostly found in the extreme southern Andes. A large proportion of the ethnic groups who live in the Andean highlands still speak Quechua and have vibrant cultural traditions, some of which were part of the Inca Empire . Dozens of Peruvian cultures are also dispersed throughout
11536-488: The troops for the Conquista by 1531. Slavery in Peru was abolished in 1854 by President Ramón Castilla . Today also mulatos (mixed African and European) and zambos (mixed African and Indigenous) constitute an important part of the population as well, especially in Piura , Tumbes , Lambayeque , Lima and Ica regions. The Afro-Peruvian population is concentrated mostly in coastal cities south of Lima, such as those found in
11648-445: The variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking. Peruvian cuisine has a special ingredient that gives the flavor to the majority of dishes "aji seco". If the same dish is prepared in another part of the world it might look the same, but the raw vegetables, potatoes, ingredients have a different taste in other parts of the world. Examples of these are eggs, quinoa, Lima beans, fish, lime which
11760-418: The various Quechua ethnic groups have numerous cultural characteristics in common. They also share many of these with the Aymara or other Indigenous peoples of the central Andes . Traditionally, Quechua identity is locally oriented and inseparably linked in each case with the established economic system. It is based on agriculture in the lower altitude regions, and on pastoral farming in the higher regions of
11872-585: The whole of Spain, in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas (lit. "the other Spanish languages "). Article III reads as follows: El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. ... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas... Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State. ... The other Spanish languages shall also be official in their respective Autonomous Communities... The Royal Spanish Academy ( Real Academia Española ), on
11984-638: The world. Spanish is well represented in the humanities and social sciences . Spanish is also the third most used language on the internet by number of users after English and Chinese and the second most used language by number of websites after English. Spanish is used as an official language by many international organizations , including the United Nations , European Union , Organization of American States , Union of South American Nations , Community of Latin American and Caribbean States , African Union , among others. In Spain and some other parts of
12096-509: Was a Peruvian rebel feminist, educator, journalist, writer and social activist who was noted by the National Council of Women of Peru in 1969 as the "first modern champion of women's rights in Peru". Machu Picchu, one of the seven wonders of the world, Sacsayhuaman, Chan chan, the architecture was constructed to congregate hundreds if not thousands of people for ceremonies and to cohabit in harmony with others and with nature. Some of
12208-634: Was developed in the cities of Toledo , in the 13th to 16th centuries, and Madrid , from the 1570s. The development of the Spanish sound system from that of Vulgar Latin exhibits most of the changes that are typical of Western Romance languages , including lenition of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin vīta > Spanish vida ). The diphthongization of Latin stressed short e and o —which occurred in open syllables in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in
12320-622: Was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see Iberian Romance languages ). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spain with the advance of the Reconquista , and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the Arabic of Al-Andalus , much of it indirectly, through the Romance Mozarabic dialects (some 4,000 Arabic -derived words, make up around 8% of the language today). The written standard for this new language
12432-713: Was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The h- , still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects, it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Latin and neighboring Romance languages, there are many f -/ h - doublets in modern Spanish: Fernando and Hernando (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), ferrero and herrero (both Spanish for "smith"), fierro and hierro (both Spanish for "iron"), and fondo and hondo (both words pertaining to depth in Spanish, though fondo means "bottom", while hondo means "deep"); additionally, hacer ("to make")
12544-462: Was revoked by Michel Temer after the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff . In many border towns and villages along Paraguay and Uruguay, a mixed language known as Portuñol is spoken. Equatorial Guinea is the only Spanish-speaking country located entirely in Africa, with the language introduced during the Spanish colonial period . Enshrined in the constitution as an official language (alongside French and Portuguese), Spanish features prominently in
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