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109-577: Nahal Ein Gav II is a prehistoric archaeological site in northern Israel, where a village of the late Natufian culture was discovered. The site is located on the northern terrace of Ein-Gev stream, about two kilometers east of the Sea of Galilee , on the southern slopes of the Golan Heights . The excavations at the site revealed a Natufian village which includes a large and complex cemetery building,

218-592: A common impurity. Tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before 3000 BCE. The Bronze Age forms part of the three-age system for prehistoric societies. In this system, it follows the Neolithic in some areas of the world. While copper is a common ore, deposits of tin are rare in the Old World , and often had to be traded or carried considerable distances from

327-425: A detergent agent (such as sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate ). Plaster may also be used to create complex detailing for use in room interiors. These may be geometric (simulating wood or stone) or naturalistic (simulating leaves, vines, and flowers). These are also often used to simulate wood or stone detailing found in more substantial buildings. In modern days this material is also used for false ceiling . In this,

436-403: A fire. Early versions of protective plasters often contain asbestos fibres, which since have been outlawed in many industrialized nations. Recent plasters for fire protection either contain cement or gypsum as binding agents as well as mineral wool or glass fiber to add mechanical strength. Vermiculite , polystyrene beads or chemical expansion agents are often added to decrease the density of

545-455: A hand-made and pleasing textured alternative to machine-made modern substrate finishes. But clay plaster finishes are rare and fleeting. According to Martin Weaver, "Many of North America's historic building interiors … are all too often … one of the first things to disappear in the frenzy of demolition of interiors which has unfortunately come to be a common companion to 'heritage preservation' in

654-406: A large number of stone buildings, and unique facilities. According to three carbon-14 dates, the site dates to a period between 12,550 and 12,000 years before our time (calibrated dates). This dating indicates the association of the site with the late Natufian culture , as also appears from the study of the flint tools and other characteristics of the material culture at the site. The site

763-467: A lime and sand mortar to provide a weather proof seal to protect from water penetration. This allowed a rendering of clay plaster and setting coat of thin lime and fine sand on exterior-walled rooms. Split lath was nailed with square cut lath nails, one into each framing member. With hand split lath the plasterer had the luxury of making lath to fit the cavity being plastered. Lengths of lath two to six foot are not uncommon at Economy Village. Hand split lath

872-622: A mixture of suitable plaster, sand, Portland cement and water which is normally applied to masonry interiors and exteriors to achieve a smooth surface. Interior surfaces sometimes receive a final layer of gypsum plaster. Walls constructed with stock bricks are normally plastered while face brick walls are not plastered. Various cement-based plasters are also used as proprietary spray fireproofing products. These usually use vermiculite as lightweight aggregate. Heavy versions of such plasters are also in use for exterior fireproofing, to protect LPG vessels, pipe bridges and vessel skirts. Cement plaster

981-674: A much more evident Mesolithic era, lasting millennia. In Northern Europe , societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands fostered by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviours that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. These conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 4000 BCE (6,000  BP ) in northern Europe. Remains from this period are few and far between, often limited to middens . In forested areas,

1090-471: A patient's head and neck, and liquid plaster is used to fill the impression and produce a plaster bust. The transparent material polymethyl methacrylate (Plexiglas, Perspex) is then vacuum formed over this bust to create a clear face mask which will hold the patient's head steady while radiation is being delivered. In dentistry, plaster is used for mounting casts or models of oral tissues. These diagnostic and working models are usually made from dental stone,

1199-488: A pebble. The jewelry and art pieces discovered in Nahal Ein Gav II reflect local styles, with aspects unique to the site. The pieces of art share many characteristics with findings from the early Natufian culture, but they also have stylistic characteristics in common with the art of the early Neolithic cultures. The excavations at Nahal Ein Gav II revealed an early instance of innovative technological development:

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1308-454: A plaster positive was desired this would be constructed or cast to form a durable image artwork. As a model for stonecutters this would be sufficient. If intended for producing a bronze casting the plaster positive could be further worked to produce smooth surfaces. An advantage of this plaster image is that it is relatively cheap; should a patron approve of the durable image and be willing to bear further expense, subsequent molds could be made for

1417-410: A plaster secondary support. Some, like Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling , are executed in fresco , meaning they are painted on a thin layer of wet plaster, called intonaco ; the pigments sink into this layer so that the plaster itself becomes the medium holding them, which accounts for the excellent durability of fresco. Additional work may be added a secco on top of the dry plaster, though this

1526-407: A positive model of the limb and used in fabricating the final medical device. In addition, dentures (false teeth) are made by first taking a dental impression using a soft, pliable material that can be removed from around the teeth and gums without loss of fidelity and using the impression to creating a wax model of the teeth and gums. The model is used to create a plaster mold (which is heated so

1635-400: A primary advantage of the material is that it is resistant to a fire within a room and so can assist in reducing or eliminating structural damage or destruction provided the fire is promptly extinguished. Lime plaster is used for frescoes , where pigments , diluted in water, are applied to the still wet plaster. USA and Iran are the main plaster producers in the world. Cement plaster is

1744-420: A remarkable property of setting into a hard mass on wetting with water. CaSO 4 ⋅ 1 2 H 2 O + 1 1 2 H 2 O ⟶ CaSO 4 ⋅ 2 H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {CaSO4.1/2H2O + 1 1/2H2O -> CaSO4.2H2O}}} Plaster of Paris

1853-431: A rigid denture base. Moreover, in dentistry there are 5 types of gypsum products depending on their consistency and uses: 1) impression plaster (type 1), 2) model plaster (type 2), dental stones (types 3, 4 and 5) In orthotics and prosthetics, plaster bandages traditionally were used to create impressions of the patient's limb (or residuum). This negative impression was then, itself, filled with plaster of Paris, to create

1962-459: A similar way. The plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens. Plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools and sandpaper and can be moulded, either on site or in advance, and worked pieces can be put in place with adhesive . Plaster

2071-654: A single room. Settlements might have a surrounding stone wall to keep domesticated animals in and hostile tribes out. Later settlements have rectangular mud-brick houses where the family lived in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult with preserved skulls of the dead. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija are notable for their gigantic structures. Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states, states evolved in Eurasia only with

2180-749: A single source. The emergence of metallurgy may have occurred first in the Fertile Crescent , where it gave rise to the Bronze Age in the 4th millennium BCE (the traditional view), although finds from the Vinča culture in Europe have now been securely dated to slightly earlier than those of the Fertile Crescent. Timna Valley contains evidence of copper mining 7,000 years ago. The process of transition from Neolithic to Chalcolithic in

2289-523: A sledge. When small enough, a froe and mallet were used to split away narrow strips of lath. Farm animals provided hair and manure for the float coat of plaster. Fields of wheat and grains provided straw and hay to reinforce the clay plaster. But there was no uniformity in clay plaster recipes. Manure provides fiber for tensile strength as well as protein adhesive. Unlike casein used with lime plaster, hydrogen bonds of manure proteins are weakened by moisture. With braced timber-framed structures clay plaster

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2398-416: A stronger, harder and denser derivative of plaster which is manufactured from gypsum under pressure. Plaster is also used to invest and flask wax dentures, the wax being subsequently removed by "burning out," and replaced with flowable denture base material. The typically acrylic denture base then cures in the plaster investment mold. Plaster investments can withstand the high heat and pressure needed to ensure

2507-521: Is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English, "plaster" usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, while "render" commonly refers to external applications. The term stucco refers to plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces. The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum , lime , or cement , but all work in

2616-590: Is a mixture of clay , sand and water often with the addition of plant fibers for tensile strength over wood lath . Clay plaster has been used around the world at least since antiquity. Settlers in the American colonies used clay plaster on the interiors of their houses: "Interior plastering in the form of clay antedated even the building of houses of frame, and must have been visible in the inside of wattle filling in those earliest frame houses in which … wainscot had not been indulged. Clay continued in use long after

2725-462: Is accompanied by a slight expansion of volume. It is used in making casts for statues, toys , and more. The initial matrix consists mostly of orthorhombic crystals: the kinetic product. Over the next 72 hours, the rhombic crystals give way to an interlocking mass of monoclinic crystal needles, and the plaster increases in hardness and strength. If plaster or gypsum is heated to between 130 °C (266 °F) and 180 °C (350 °F), hemihydrate

2834-800: Is also a transition period between Stone Age and Bronze Age, the Chalcolithic or Copper Age. For the prehistory of the Americas see Pre-Columbian era . The notion of "prehistory" emerged during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word "primitive" to describe societies that existed before written records. The word "prehistory" first appeared in English in 1836 in the Foreign Quarterly Review . The geologic time scale for pre-human time periods, and

2943-516: Is an example. In archaeology, the Iron Age refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy . The adoption of iron coincided with other changes, often including more sophisticated agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles, which makes the archaeological Iron Age coincide with the " Axial Age " in the history of philosophy. Although iron ore is common, the metalworking techniques necessary to use iron are different from those needed for

3052-488: Is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that prehistorians use, such as " Neanderthal " or " Iron Age ", are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. The concept of a "Stone Age" is found useful in the archaeology of most of the world, although in the archaeology of the Americas it is called by different names and begins with a Lithic stage , or sometimes Paleo-Indian . The sub-divisions described below are used for Eurasia, and not consistently across

3161-782: Is called the Lower Paleolithic (as in excavations it appears underneath the Upper Paleolithic), beginning with the earliest stone tools dated to around 3.3 million years ago at the Lomekwi site in Kenya. These tools predate the genus Homo and were probably used by Kenyanthropus . Evidence of control of fire by early hominins during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim

3270-525: Is commonly based on the reaction of gypsum plaster with water, where the water is selectively applied by the inkjet head. The chemical reaction that occurs when plaster is mixed with water is exothermic . When plaster sets, it can reach temperatures of more than 60 °C (140 °F) and, in large volumes, can burn the skin. In January 2007, a secondary school student in Lincolnshire , England sustained third-degree burns after encasing her hands in

3379-456: Is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water. On heating to 180 °C (350 °F), the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite (CaSO 4 · n H 2 O where n = 0 to 0.05) is produced. γ-anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants . On heating above 250 °C (480 °F), the completely anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster

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3488-436: Is formed. Lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand (or other inert fillers). Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes the plaster to set by transforming the calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate ( limestone ). Whitewash is based on the same chemistry. To make lime plaster, limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated above approximately 850 °C (1600 °F) to produce quicklime (calcium oxide). Water

3597-735: Is generally less durable. Plaster (often called stucco in this context) is a far easier material for making reliefs than stone or wood, and was widely used for large interior wall-reliefs in Egypt and the Near East from antiquity into Islamic times (latterly for architectural decoration, as at the Alhambra ), Rome, and Europe from at least the Renaissance, as well as probably elsewhere. However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork

3706-573: Is important because of its archaeological findings and geographical location. The find uncovered at the site has distinct Natufian signs, but it also has elements reminiscent of the cultures of the early Neolithic period of the Levant . In the Jordan Valley there are other Natufian sites from the same period, which may reflect a local population in the valley towards the end of the Natufian and

3815-490: Is mainly known from Pompeii and other sites buried by ash from Mount Vesuvius . Plaster may be cast directly into a damp clay mold. In creating this piece molds (molds designed for making multiple copies) or waste molds (for single use) would be made of plaster. This "negative" image, if properly designed, may be used to produce clay productions, which when fired in a kiln become terra cotta building decorations, or these may be used to create cast concrete sculptures. If

3924-520: Is not generally used in those parts of the world where the working of hard metals arrived abruptly from contact with Eurasian cultures, such as Oceania , Australasia , much of Sub-Saharan Africa , and parts of the Americas . With some exceptions in pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas, these areas did not develop complex writing systems before the arrival of Eurasians, so their prehistory reaches into relatively recent periods; for example, 1788

4033-477: Is not uniform like sawn lath. The straightness or waviness of the grain affected the thickness or width of each lath, and thus the spacing of the lath. The clay plaster rough coat varied to cover the irregular lath. Window and door trim as well as the mudboard (baseboard) acted as screeds. With the variation of the lath thickness and use of coarse straw and manure, the clay coat of plaster was thick in comparison to later lime-only and gypsum plasters. In Economy Village,

4142-594: Is often used as an artistic material for casting. Plaster is also commonly spread over an armature (form), made of wire mesh, cloth, or other materials; a process for adding raised details. For these processes, limestone or acrylic based plaster may be employed, known as stucco. Products composed mainly of plaster of Paris and a small amount of Portland cement are used for casting sculptures and other art objects as well as molds. Considerably harder and stronger than straight plaster of Paris, these products are for indoor use only as they degrade in moist conditions. Plaster

4251-533: Is produced by heating gypsum to about 120–180 °C (248–356 °F) in a kiln: CaSO 4 ⋅ 2 H 2 O ⟶ heat CaSO 4 ⋅ 1 2 H 2 O + 1 1 2 H 2 O ↑ {\displaystyle {\ce {CaSO4.2H2O {\overset {heat}{{}->{}}}{CaSO4.1/2H2O}+ 1\!1/2 H2O ^}}} (released as steam). Plaster of Paris has

4360-558: Is provided by a wide variety of natural and social sciences, such as anthropology , archaeology , archaeoastronomy , comparative linguistics , biology , geology , molecular genetics , paleontology , palynology , physical anthropology , and many others. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology , but in the way it deals with the activities of archaeological cultures rather than named nations or individuals . Restricted to material processes, remains, and artefacts rather than written records, prehistory

4469-551: Is seen as a transition period between the Stone Age and Bronze Age. An archaeological site in Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 7,500 years ago. The find in 2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented independently in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time, rather than spreading from

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4578-419: Is stored in moisture -proof containers, because the presence of moisture can cause slow setting of plaster of Paris by bringing about its hydration, which will make it useless after some time. When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it rehydrates over time into gypsum. The setting of plaster slurry starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes. The setting of plaster of Paris

4687-455: Is suitable for finishing rather than load-bearing, and when thickly applied for decoration may require a hidden supporting framework. Forms of plaster have several other uses. In medicine, plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry, plaster is used to make dental models by pouring the material into dental impressions . Various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster

4796-500: Is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP in a site at Bnot Ya'akov Bridge , Israel . The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, have a light source, deter animals at night and meditate. Early Homo sapiens originated some 300,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic . Anatomic changes indicating modern language capacity also arise during

4905-402: Is the traditional matrix for fresco painting; the pigments are applied to a thin wet top layer of plaster and fuse with it so that the painting is actually in coloured plaster. In the ancient world, as well as the sort of ornamental designs in plaster relief that are still used, plaster was also widely used to create large figurative reliefs for walls, though few of these have survived. Plaster

5014-421: Is then added to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), which is sold as a wet putty or a white powder. Additional water is added to form a paste prior to use. The paste may be stored in airtight containers. When exposed to the atmosphere, the calcium hydroxide very slowly turns back into calcium carbonate through reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, causing the plaster to increase in strength. Lime plaster

5123-476: Is to find lime, bricks, clay, stone, haire, together with laborers and workmen." Records of the New Haven colony in 1641 mention clay and hay as well as lime and hair also. In German houses of Pennsylvania the use of clay persisted. Old Economy Village is one such German settlement. The early Nineteenth-Century utopian village in present-day Ambridge , Pennsylvania, used clay plaster substrate exclusively in

5232-400: Is to replace conventional gypsum plasters in cases where the temperature can get too high for gypsum plaster to stay on the wall or ceiling. An example of a heat-resistant plaster composition is a mixture of Portland cement , gypsum, lime, exfoliated insulating aggregate ( perlite and vermiculite or mica ), phosphate shale , and small amounts of adhesive binder (such as Gum karaya ), and

5341-503: Is used. The walls are painted with the plaster which (in some countries) is nothing but calcium carbonate. After drying the calcium carbonate plaster turns white and then the wall is ready to be painted. Elsewhere in the world, such as the UK, ever finer layers of plaster are added on top of the plasterboard (or sometimes the brick wall directly) to give a smooth brown polished texture ready for painting. Mural paintings are commonly painted onto

5450-446: Is usually taken as the end of the prehistory of Australia . The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing system, is often known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no written records from human prehistory, which can only be known from material archaeological and anthropological evidence: prehistoric materials and human remains. These were at first understood by

5559-516: Is when the first signs of human presence have been found; however, Africa and Asia contain sites dated as early as c.  2.5 and 1.8 million years ago, respectively. Depending on the date when relevant records become a useful academic resource, its end date also varies. For example, in Egypt it is generally accepted that prehistory ended around 3100 BCE, whereas in New Guinea

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5668-401: Is widely used as a support for broken bones; a bandage impregnated with plaster is moistened and then wrapped around the damaged limb, setting into a close-fitting yet easily removed tube, known as an orthopedic cast . Plaster is also used in preparation for radiotherapy when fabricating individualized immobilization shells for patients. Plaster bandages are used to construct an impression of

5777-653: The Copper Age or Bronze Age ; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age ). The term Neolithic is commonly used in the Old World ; its application to cultures in the Americas and Oceania is complicated by the fact standard progression from stone to metal tools, as seen in the Old World, does not neatly apply. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat , millet and spelt , and

5886-531: The Paleolithic , by the Neolithic only Homo sapiens sapiens remained. This was a period of technological and social developments which established most of the basic elements of historical cultures, such as the domestication of crops and animals , and the establishment of permanent settlements and early chiefdoms. The era commenced with the beginning of farming , which produced the " Neolithic Revolution ". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in

5995-606: The three-age system for human prehistory, were systematised during the nineteenth century in the work of British, French, German, and Scandinavian anthropologists , archaeologists , and antiquarians . The main source of information for prehistory is archaeology (a branch of anthropology), but some scholars are beginning to make more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. The primary researchers into human prehistory are archaeologists and physical anthropologists who use excavation, geologic and geographic surveys, and other scientific analysis to reveal and interpret

6104-475: The "Chalcolithic", "Eneolithic", or "Copper Age" refers to a transitional period where early copper metallurgy appeared alongside the widespread use of stone tools. During this period, some weapons and tools were made of copper. This period was still largely Neolithic in character. It is a phase of the Bronze Age before it was discovered that adding tin to copper formed the harder bronze . The Copper Age

6213-653: The Azilian cultures, before spreading to Europe through the Iberomaurusian culture of Northern Africa and the Kebaran culture of the Levant . However, independent discovery is not ruled out. "Neolithic" means "New Stone Age", from about 10,200 BCE in some parts of the Middle East, but later in other parts of the world, and ended between 4,500 and 2,000 BCE. Although there were several species of humans during

6322-587: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , in collaboration with researchers from Israel and abroad and research students. The excavations at the site revealed multiple architectural remains that reflect a complex settlement plan. The architectural remains are mostly large rounded buildings, reaching about 5 meters in diameter and built from a combination of limestone and basalt . In many cases, the buildings were built with two parallel outer walls, and in some cases, flat stones were placed horizontally on top of

6431-460: The Iron Age, often through conquest by empires, which continued to expand during this period. For example, in most of Europe conquest by the Roman Empire means the term Iron Age is replaced by "Roman", " Gallo-Roman ", and similar terms after the conquest. Even before conquest, many areas began to have a protohistory, as they were written about by literate cultures; the protohistory of Ireland

6540-638: The Middle East is characterized in archaeological stone tool assemblages by a decline in high quality raw material procurement and use. North Africa and the Nile Valley imported its iron technology from the Near East and followed the Near Eastern course of Bronze Age and Iron Age development. The Bronze Age is the earliest period in which some civilizations reached the end of prehistory, by introducing written records. The Bronze Age, or parts thereof, are thus considered to be part of prehistory only for

6649-739: The Middle Palaeolithic. During the Middle Palaeolithic Era, there is the first definitive evidence of human use of fire. Sites in Zambia have charred logs, charcoal and carbonized plants, that have been dated to 180,000 BP. The systematic burial of the dead , music , prehistoric art , and the use of increasingly sophisticated multi-part tools are highlights of the Middle Paleolithic. The Upper Paleolithic extends from 50,000 and 12,000 years ago, with

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6758-734: The Natufian culture and the cultures of the Pre-Ceramic Neolithic A period in the region. The percentages of blades and flints are equal in frequency, a characteristic more typical of the Pre-Ceramic Neolithic A industries than of the Epipaleolithic. The most common flint tools are the drilling tools (drills and awls). Rich assemblages of unique art and craft items were discovered at the site, for example, jewelry, limestone tools as well as stone and bone tools with engravings. The amount of beads, together with

6867-443: The adoption of laths and brick filling for the frame." Where lime was not easily accessible it was rationed and usually substituted with clay as a binder. In Martin E. Weaver 's seminal work he says, "Mud plaster consists of clay or earth which is mixed with water to give a 'plastic' or workable consistency. If the clay mixture is too plastic it will shrink, crack and distort on drying. Sand, fine gravels and fibres were added to reduce

6976-537: The assemblage of drilling tools and other drilled items, show an extensive jewelry manufacturing industry. Many of the jewelry are disk beads or cylindrical shaped beads made of a wide variety of materials, but most are made of seashells. The disk beads are usually made of Cardium oysters that originate from the Mediterranean Sea and a geological outcrop near the site. Production waste and beads in various stages of production and processing were discovered on

7085-496: The beginning of the Neolithic period. Because of this, Nahal Ein Gav II is a key site for studying the transition from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering that characterizes the Epipaleolithic period to a life of agriculture and animal husbandry that represents the Neolithic period . The excavation and research project at the site continues by an excavation delegation from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . The site

7194-458: The brick and wood frame high architecture of the Feast Hall, Great House and other large and commercial structures as well as in the brick, frame and log dwellings of the society members. The use of clay in plaster and in laying brickwork appears to have been a common practice at that time not just in the construction of Economy village when the settlement was founded in 1824. Specifications for

7303-569: The case of Indigenous Australian "highways" known as songlines . The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age (from the Greek mesos , 'middle', and lithos , 'stone'), was a period in the development of human technology between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic . The Mesolithic period began with the retreat of glaciers at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, some 10,000 BP, and ended with

7412-463: The collection of folklore and by analogy with pre-literate societies observed in modern times. The key step to understanding prehistoric evidence is dating, and reliable dating techniques have developed steadily since the nineteenth century. The most common of these dating techniques is radiocarbon dating . Further evidence has come from the reconstruction of ancient spoken languages . More recent techniques include forensic chemical analysis to reveal

7521-475: The concentrations of fine clay particles which were the cause of the excessive shrinkage." Manure was often added for its fibre content. In some building techniques straw or grass was used as reinforcement. In the Earliest European settlers' plasterwork, a mud plaster was used McKee wrote, of a circa 1675 Massachusetts contract that specified the plasterer, "Is to lath and siele the four rooms of

7630-465: The construction of, "Lock keepers houses on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, written about 1828, require stone walls to be laid with clay mortar, excepting 3 inches on the outside of the walls … which (are) to be good lime mortar and well pointed." The choice of clay was because of its low cost, but also the availability. At Economy, root cellars dug under the houses yielded clay and sand (stone), or

7739-445: The creation of a wax image to be used in lost wax casting , a far more expensive process. In lieu of producing a bronze image suitable for outdoor use the plaster image may be painted to resemble a metal image; such sculptures are suitable only for presentation in a weather-protected environment. Plaster expands while hardening then contracts slightly just before hardening completely. This makes plaster excellent for use in molds, and it

7848-454: The end of the Bronze Age large states, whose armies imposed themselves on people with a different culture, and are often called empires, had arisen in Egypt, China, Anatolia (the Hittites ), and Mesopotamia , all of them literate. The Iron Age is not part of prehistory for all civilizations who had introduced written records during the Bronze Age. Most remaining civilizations did so during

7957-639: The end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently, in the 1870s, when the Russian anthropologist Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai spent several years living among native peoples, and described their way of life in a comprehensive treatise. In Europe the relatively well-documented classical cultures of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had neighbouring cultures, including the Celts and the Etruscans , with little writing. Historians debate how much weight to give to

8066-421: The entire burial area and approaches the monumental wall of Building 5. The full extent of the cemetery and the depth of the layers in it are not yet fully known. Prehistory Prehistory , also called pre-literary history , is the period of human history between the first known use of stone tools by hominins c.  3.3   million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with

8175-446: The few mines, stimulating the creation of extensive trading routes. In many areas as far apart as China and England, the valuable new material was used for weapons, but for a long time apparently not available for agricultural tools. Much of it seems to have been hoarded by social elites, and sometimes deposited in extravagant quantities, from Chinese ritual bronzes and Indian copper hoards , to European hoards of unused axe-heads. By

8284-639: The finished product and increase thermal insulation. One differentiates between interior and exterior fireproofing. Interior products are typically less substantial, with lower densities and lower cost. Exterior products have to withstand harsher environmental conditions. A rough surface is typically forgiven inside of buildings as dropped ceilings often hide them. Fireproofing plasters are losing ground to more costly intumescent and endothermic products, simply on technical merit. Trade jurisdiction on unionized construction sites in North America remains with

8393-493: The first organized settlements and blossoming of artistic work. Throughout the Palaeolithic, humans generally lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers . Hunter-gatherer societies tended to be very small and egalitarian, although hunter-gatherer societies with abundant resources or advanced food-storage techniques sometimes developed sedentary lifestyles with complex social structures such as chiefdoms, and social stratification . Long-distance contacts may have been established, as in

8502-497: The first signs of deforestation have been found, although this would only begin in earnest during the Neolithic, when more space was needed for agriculture . The Mesolithic is characterized in most areas by small composite flint tools: microliths and microburins . Fishing tackle , stone adzes , and wooden objects such as canoes and bows have been found at some sites. These technologies first occur in Africa, associated with

8611-441: The guise of building rehabilitation." Gypsum plaster, also known as plaster of Paris , is a white powder consisting of calcium sulfate hemihydrate . The natural form of the compound is the mineral bassanite . The name "plaster of Paris" was given because it was originally made by heating gypsum from a large deposit at Montmartre , a hill in the north end of Paris . Gypsum plaster, gypsum powder, or plaster of Paris,

8720-450: The house betwixt the joists overhead with a coat of lime and haire upon the clay; also to fill the gable ends of the house with ricks and plaister them with clay. 5. To lath and plaster partitions of the house with clay and lime, and to fill, lath, and plaister them with lime and haire besides; and to siele and lath them overhead with lime; also to fill, lath, and plaster the kitchen up to the wall plate on every side. 6. The said Daniel Andrews

8829-459: The inner wall to form a bench. So far 6 buildings have been excavated, and more than 10 are known on the site. The raw materials for chipping the flint vessels are mainly pebbles originating from the wadi and the banks of the Sea of Galilee. The flint assemblage includes evidence of all the stages of chipping. Most of the fracturing products on the site are lithic flakes , something that characterizes

8938-473: The introduction of agriculture , the date of which varied by geographic region. In some areas, such as the Near East , agriculture was already underway by the end of the Pleistocene , and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. In areas with limited glacial impact, the term " Epipalaeolithic " is preferred. Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last ice age ended have

9047-407: The invention of writing systems . The use of symbols, marks, and images appears very early among humans, but the earliest known writing systems appeared c.  5,200 years ago. It took thousands of years for writing systems to be widely adopted, with writing having spread to almost all cultures by the 19th century. The end of prehistory therefore came at different times in different places, and

9156-474: The keeping of dogs , sheep , and goats . By about 6,900–6,400 BCE, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery . The Neolithic period saw the development of early villages , agriculture , animal domestication , tools , and the onset of the earliest recorded incidents of warfare. Settlements became more permanent, some with circular houses made of mudbrick with

9265-489: The lime top coats are thin veneers often an eighth inch or less attesting to the scarcity of limestone supplies there. Clay plasters with their lack of tensile and compressive strength fell out of favor as industrial mining and technology advances in kiln production led to the exclusive use of lime and then gypsum in plaster applications. However, clay plasters still exist after hundreds of years clinging to split lath on rusty square nails. The wall variations and roughness reveal

9374-558: The metal used earlier, more heat is required. Once the technical challenge had been solved, iron replaced bronze as its higher abundance meant armies could be armed much more easily with iron weapons. All dates are approximate and conjectural, obtained through research in the fields of anthropology , archaeology, genetics , geology , or linguistics . They are all subject to revision due to new discoveries or improved calculations. BP stands for " Before Present (1950)." BCE stands for " Before Common Era ". Plaster Plaster

9483-480: The mix. Because plaster of Paris sets quickly, "retardants" were used to slow setting time enough to allow workers to mix large working quantities of lime putty plaster. A modern form of this method uses expanded metal mesh over wood or metal structures, which allows a great freedom of design as it is adaptable to both simple and compound curves. Today this building method has been partly replaced with drywall , also composed mostly of gypsum plaster. In both these methods,

9592-502: The natural environments in the Jordan Valley and the southern Golan. The intensive hunting methods are reflected in the exploitation of a wide variety of species, an abundance of small animal species (turtles and rabbits), and an emphasis on hunting young antelopes . On the site, there is also plenty of evidence of the exploitation of animals from the nearby water sources (fish and waterfowl). Burials were found in several areas of

9701-401: The nature and behavior of pre-literate and non-literate peoples. Human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight. Cultural anthropologists help provide context for societal interactions, by which objects of human origin pass among people, allowing an analysis of any article that arises in a human prehistoric context. Therefore, data about prehistory

9810-403: The nearby Ohio river yielded washed sand from the sand bars; and lime outcroppings and oyster shell for the lime kiln . The surrounding forests of the new village of Economy provided straight grain, old- growth oak trees for lath. Hand split lath starts with a log of straight grained wood of the required length. The log is split into quarters and then smaller and smaller bolts with wedges and

9919-403: The plasterers, regardless of whether the plaster is decorative in nature or is used in passive fire protection. Cementitious and gypsum based plasters tend to be endothermic. Fireproofing plasters are closely related to firestop mortars. Most firestop mortars can be sprayed and tooled very well, due to the fine detail work that is required of firestopping. Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing

10028-427: The possibility that the body was bound or wrapped in organic material during the burial. A large and complex cemetery was discovered in building 5. At least four burials were uncovered in a burial pit excavated in the test section. At the base of the pit, a young woman was buried in a contracted position. Around her whole body, and especially under her head, there was a hard white substance, which indicates that when she

10137-453: The powder form is converted in a sheet form and the sheet is then attached to the basic ceiling with the help of fasteners. It is done in various designs containing various combinations of lights and colors. The common use of this plaster can be seen in the construction of houses. Post-construction, direct painting is possible (which is commonly seen in French architecture), but elsewhere plaster

10246-609: The production of high-quality lime plaster in large quantities. Lime plaster, in different qualities and production methods, is generally known from the Pre-Ceramic Neolithic period in the Levant. After research the production sequence of the plaster at the site was reconstructed. Remains of spindle whorls found at the from 12000 years ago, might be the oldest spindle whorls found to date. The assemblage of animal bones in Nahal Ein Gev II reflects increased exploitation of

10355-658: The regions and civilizations who developed a system of keeping written records during later periods. The invention of writing coincides in some areas with the beginnings of the Bronze Age. After the appearance of writing, people started creating texts including written records of administrative matters. The Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of ores, and then combining them to cast bronze . These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as

10464-502: The rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian. Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather. Wool cloth and linen might have become available during the later Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones that (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. In Old World archaeology,

10573-426: The site, but the most significant concentration is in building 5, to the north of the site. In building 3, a single burial of a woman was found under the wall of the building, which was probably already abandoned at the time of her burial. The burial place was carefully chosen and included dismantling the stone wall, placing the body, and rebuilding the wall. The woman's burial position was very compressed, which raises

10682-459: The site, which indicates that the beads were produced locally. Similar assemblages of disc beads were discovered in Eynan and Huzuk Musa, also late Natufian sites in the Jordan Valley. Over 20 intact and broken pieces of art were discovered at the site. The collection of art items includes bone items with engravings, stone items with unique engravings, as well as a rare find: a human face sculpted in

10791-635: The sometimes biased accounts in Greek and Roman literature, of these protohistoric cultures. In dividing up human prehistory in Eurasia, historians typically use the three-age system, whereas scholars of pre-human time periods typically use the well-defined geologic record and its internationally defined stratum base within the geologic time scale . The three-age system is the periodization of human prehistory into three consecutive time periods , named for their predominant tool-making technologies: Stone Age , Bronze Age and Iron Age . In some areas, there

10900-697: The term is less often used in discussing societies where prehistory ended relatively recently. In the early Bronze Age , Sumer in Mesopotamia , the Indus Valley Civilisation , and ancient Egypt were the first civilizations to develop their own scripts and keep historical records, with their neighbours following. Most other civilizations reached their end of prehistory during the following Iron Age . The three-age division of prehistory into Stone Age , Bronze Age , and Iron Age remains in use for much of Eurasia and North Africa , but

11009-587: The use and provenance of materials, and genetic analysis of bones to determine kinship and physical characteristics of prehistoric peoples. The beginning of prehistory is normally taken to be marked by human-like beings appearing on Earth. The date marking its end is typically defined as the advent of the contemporary written historical record. Both dates consequently vary widely from region to region. For example, in European regions, prehistory cannot begin before c.  1.3  million years ago, which

11118-582: The wax melts and flows out) and the denture materials are injected into the mold. After a curing period, the mold is opened and the dentures are cleaned up and polished. Plasters have been in use in passive fire protection , as fireproofing products, for many decades. Gypsum plaster releases water vapor when exposed to flame, acting to slow the spread of the fire, for as much as an hour or two depending on thickness. Plaster also provides some insulation to retard heat flow into structural steel elements, that would otherwise lose their strength and collapse in

11227-460: The whole area. "Palaeolithic" means "Old Stone Age", and begins with the first use of stone tools . The Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age . It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools by hominins c.  3.3  million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene c.  11,650   BP (before the present period). The early part of the Palaeolithic

11336-431: Was a common building material for wall surfaces in a process known as lath and plaster , whereby a series of wooden strips on a studwork frame was covered with a semi-dry plaster that hardened into a surface. The plaster used in most lath and plaster construction was mainly lime plaster , with a cure time of about a month. To stabilize the lime plaster during curing, small amounts of plaster of Paris were incorporated into

11445-410: Was buried she was covered with lime plaster. The bones of two other burials were found scattered around the burial. Many other burials were found in burial pits dug into the layer of plaster that covers the entire area of the cemetery. These pits constitute the second stage of burials in the structure. So far, the excavations have made it possible to define the boundaries of the plaster layer that covers

11554-607: Was first discovered by Dudi Ben-Ami from Kibbutz Ein Gev , who traveled a lot in the area and was responsible for the discovery of many sites. The site was exposed due to the excavation of a military position that faced the Syrian border and created a deep cut where many findings were discovered. In 1973, a test excavation was carried out by Ofer Bar-Yosef . The results of this test were published in an article in 2000. The excavations in Nahal Ein Gav II were renewed in 2010 by Lior Grossman from

11663-464: Was first introduced in America around 1909 and was often called by the generic name adamant plaster after a prominent manufacturer of the time. The advantages of cement plaster noted at that time were its strength, hardness, quick setting time and durability. Heat-resistant plaster is a building material used for coating walls and chimney breasts and for use as a fire barrier in ceilings. Its purpose

11772-534: Was first used as a building material and for decoration in the Middle East at least 7,000 years ago. In Egypt, gypsum was burned in open fires, crushed into powder, and mixed with water to create plaster, used as a mortar between the blocks of pyramids and to provide a smooth wall facing. In Jericho, a cult arose where human skulls were decorated with plaster and painted to appear lifelike. The Romans brought plaster-work techniques to Europe . Clay plaster

11881-424: Was used on interior walls and ceilings as well as exterior walls as the wall cavity and exterior cladding isolated the clay plaster from moisture penetration. Application of clay plaster in brick structures risked water penetration from failed mortar joints on the exterior brick walls. In Economy Village, the rear and middle wythes of brick dwelling walls are laid in a clay and sand mortar with the front wythe bedded in

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