114-514: Nailsea Glassworks was a glass manufacturing factory in Nailsea in the English county of Somerset . The remaining structures have been designated as a scheduled monument . The factory making bottle glass and some window glass opened in 1788 and closed in 1873. Little remains of the site, however it was excavated and preserved under sand before a supermarket was built opposite. The glassworks
228-405: A glass (or vitreous solid) is a non-crystalline solid formed by rapid melt quenching . However, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, to describe any non-crystalline ( amorphous ) solid that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glass is an amorphous solid . Although the atomic-scale structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure of
342-805: A latch or similar mechanism to lock the window shut or to hold it open by various amounts. Types include the eyebrow window, fixed windows, hexagonal windows , single-hung, and double-hung sash windows, horizontal sliding sash windows , casement windows , awning windows, hopper windows, tilt, and slide windows (often door-sized), tilt and turn windows, transom windows, sidelight windows, jalousie or louvered windows, clerestory windows, lancet windows , skylights , roof windows , roof lanterns , bay windows , oriel windows , thermal, or Diocletian , windows, picture windows, rose windows , emergency exit windows, stained glass windows, French windows, panel windows, double/triple-paned windows, and witch windows . The English language-word window originates from
456-665: A mullion separating them, that open outward with opposing hinges to a terrace or porch, are referred to as a French window . Sometimes these are set in pairs or multiples thereof along the exterior wall of a very large room, but often, one French window is placed centrally in a typically sized room, perhaps among other fixed windows flanking the feature. French windows are known as porte-fenêtre in France and portafinestra in Italy, and frequently are used in modern houses. Double-paned windows have two parallel panes (slabs of glass) with
570-436: A supercooled liquid , glass exhibits all the mechanical properties of a solid. As in other amorphous solids , the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids . Due to chemical bonding constraints, glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra . The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods well below
684-809: A turquoise colour in glass, in contrast to copper(I) oxide (Cu 2 O) which gives a dull red-brown colour. Soda–lime sheet glass is typically used as a transparent glazing material, typically as windows in external walls of buildings. Float or rolled sheet glass products are cut to size either by scoring and snapping the material, laser cutting , water jets , or diamond-bladed saw. The glass may be thermally or chemically tempered (strengthened) for safety and bent or curved during heating. Surface coatings may be added for specific functions such as scratch resistance, blocking specific wavelengths of light (e.g. infrared or ultraviolet ), dirt-repellence (e.g. self-cleaning glass ), or switchable electrochromic coatings. Structural glazing systems represent one of
798-485: A clear "ring" sound when struck. However, lead glass cannot withstand high temperatures well. Lead oxide also facilitates the solubility of other metal oxides and is used in coloured glass. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glass); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders . The high ionic radius of
912-410: A double-hung, or in-line. The inline versions can be made to fold inward or outward. The inward swinging foldup windows can have fixed screens, while the outward swinging ones require movable screens. The windows are typically used for screen rooms, kitchen pass-throughs, or egress. A horizontal sliding sash window has two or more sashes that overlap slightly but slide horizontally within the frame. In
1026-456: A friction device to hold the window open against its weight and may have restriction and reversed locking built-in. In the UK, where this type of window is most common, they were extensively installed in high-rise social housing. A tilt and slide window is a window (more usually a door-sized window) where the sash tilts inwards at the top similar to a hopper window and then slides horizontally behind
1140-443: A green tint in thick sections. Manganese dioxide (MnO 2 ), which gives glass a purple colour, may be added to remove the green tint given by FeO. FeO and chromium(III) oxide (Cr 2 O 3 ) additives are used in the production of green bottles. Iron (III) oxide , on the other-hand, produces yellow or yellow-brown glass. Low concentrations (0.025 to 0.1%) of cobalt oxide (CoO) produce rich, deep blue cobalt glass . Chromium
1254-408: A human timescale. Silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically pure silica. It has very low thermal expansion and excellent resistance to thermal shock , being able to survive immersion in water while red hot, resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C) and chemical weathering, and is very hard. It is also transparent to
SECTION 10
#17327974439081368-405: A lighter alternative to traditional glass. Molecular liquids, electrolytes , molten salts , and aqueous solutions are mixtures of different molecules or ions that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or transient hydrogen bonds . In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that
1482-561: A long period at a temperature just insufficient to cause fusion. In this way, the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Réaumur's glass porcelain is produced. Although generally transparent to visible light, glasses may be opaque to other wavelengths of light . While silicate glasses are generally opaque to infrared wavelengths with a transmission cut-off at 4 μm, heavy-metal fluoride and chalcogenide glasses are transparent to infrared wavelengths of 7 to 18 μm. The addition of metallic oxides results in different coloured glasses as
1596-492: A long-standing motif of pointed or rounded window-shapes in ecclesiastical buildings, still seen in many churches today. Peter Smith discusses overall trends in early-modern rural Welsh window architecture: Up to about 1680 windows tended to be horizontal in proportion, a shape suitable for lighting the low-ceilinged rooms that had resulted from the insertion of the upper floor into the hall-house. After that date vertically proportioned windows came into fashion, partly at least as
1710-482: A mass of hot semi-molten glass, inflating it into a bubble using a hollow blowpipe, and forming it into the required shape by blowing, swinging, rolling, or moulding. While hot, the glass can be worked using hand tools, cut with shears, and additional parts such as handles or feet attached by welding. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of
1824-525: A millennium before window glass became transparent enough to see through clearly, as we expect now. In 1154, Al-Idrisi described glass windows as a feature of the palace belonging to the king of the Ghana Empire . Over the centuries techniques were developed to shear through one side of a blown glass cylinder and produce thinner rectangular window panes from the same amount of glass material. This gave rise to tall narrow windows, usually separated by
1938-453: A non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries . Glass-ceramics exhibit advantageous thermal, chemical, biological, and dielectric properties as compared to metals or organic polymers. The most commercially important property of glass-ceramics is their imperviousness to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking and industrial processes. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of
2052-401: A plastic resin with glass fibres . It is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibres. These fibres are woven together into a cloth and left to set in a plastic resin. Fibreglass has the properties of being lightweight and corrosion resistant and is a good insulator enabling its use as building insulation material and for electronic housing for consumer products. Fibreglass
2166-462: A refractive index of 1.4 to 2.4, and an Abbe number (which characterises dispersion) of 15 to 100. The refractive index may be modified by high-density (refractive index increases) or low-density (refractive index decreases) additives. Glass transparency results from the absence of grain boundaries which diffusely scatter light in polycrystalline materials. Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many glasses by maintaining them for
2280-548: A response to the Renaissance taste for the high ceiling. Since 1914 the wheel has come full circle and a horizontally proportioned window is again favoured. The spread of plate-glass technology made possible the introduction of picture windows (in Levittown, Pennsylvania , founded 1951–1952 ). Many modern day windows may have a window screen or mesh, often made of aluminum or fibreglass , to keep bugs out when
2394-438: A separation of typically about 1 cm; this space is permanently sealed and filled at the time of manufacture with dry air or other dry nonreactive gas. Such windows provide a marked improvement in thermal insulation (and usually in acoustic insulation as well) and are resistant to fogging and frosting caused by temperature differential. They are widely used for residential and commercial construction in intemperate climates. In
SECTION 20
#17327974439082508-652: A separator ( mullion ). Typically, the cellular window is used for an attic or as a decorative feature, but it can also be a major architectural element to provide the natural lighting inside buildings. A guillotine window is a window that opens vertically. Guillotine windows have more than one sliding frame, and open from bottom to top or top to bottom. EN 12519 is the European standard that describes windows terms officially used in EU Member States. The main terms are: The United States NFRC Window Label lists
2622-412: A spinning metal disk. Several alloys have been produced in layers with thicknesses exceeding 1 millimetre. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sells several zirconium -based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys. Experimental evidence indicates that
2736-455: A strike in the neighbouring collieries which stopped production. In 1870 it was brought by Chance Brothers but problems with coal supply lead to the final closure. In 1871 the works employed 319 people. The works closed down in 1873, but "Nailsea" glass, an example of the "latticino" decorative style, (mostly made by glass workers at the end of their shift in Nailsea and at other glass works)
2850-435: A structural analogue of silica, fluoride , aluminate , phosphate , borate , and chalcogenide glasses) have physicochemical properties useful for their application in fibre-optic waveguides in communication networks and other specialised technological applications. Silica-free glasses may often have poor glass-forming tendencies. Novel techniques, including containerless processing by aerodynamic levitation (cooling
2964-413: A structurally metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase. Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume , entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through
3078-474: A vertical support called a mullion . Mullioned glass windows were the windows of choice among the European well-to-do, whereas paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea, and Japan. In England, glass became common in the windows of ordinary homes only in the early-17th century, whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century. Modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after
3192-429: A wall, typically without glazing bars , or glazed with only perfunctory glazing bars ( muntins ) near the edge of the window. Picture windows provide an unimpeded view, as if framing a picture. A multi-lite window is a window glazed with small panes of glass separated by wooden or lead glazing bars , or muntins , arranged in a decorative glazing pattern often dictated by the building's architectural style. Due to
3306-521: A wider spectral range than ordinary glass, extending from the visible further into both the UV and IR ranges, and is sometimes used where transparency to these wavelengths is necessary. Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc. However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with. Therefore, normally, other substances (fluxes) are added to lower
3420-418: Is 3.25 × 10 /°C as compared to about 9 × 10 /°C for a typical soda–lime glass ). They are, therefore, less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion and thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock . They are commonly used for e.g. labware , household cookware , and sealed beam car head lamps . The addition of lead(II) oxide into silicate glass lowers the melting point and viscosity of
3534-552: Is a common volcanic glass with high silica (SiO 2 ) content formed when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly. Impactite is a form of glass formed by the impact of a meteorite , where Moldavite (found in central and eastern Europe), and Libyan desert glass (found in areas in the eastern Sahara , the deserts of eastern Libya and western Egypt ) are notable examples. Vitrification of quartz can also occur when lightning strikes sand , forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites . Trinitite
Nailsea Glassworks - Misplaced Pages Continue
3648-493: Is a door with a jalousie window. A clerestory window is a window set in a roof structure or high in a wall, used for daylighting . A skylight is a window built into a roof structure. This type of window allows for natural daylight and moonlight. A roof window is a sloped window used for daylighting , built into a roof structure. It is one of the few windows that could be used as an exit. Larger roof windows meet building codes for emergency evacuation. A roof lantern
3762-714: Is a glassy residue formed from the desert floor sand at the Trinity nuclear bomb test site. Edeowie glass , found in South Australia , is proposed to originate from Pleistocene grassland fires, lightning strikes, or hypervelocity impact by one or several asteroids or comets . Naturally occurring obsidian glass was used by Stone Age societies as it fractures along very sharp edges, making it ideal for cutting tools and weapons. Glassmaking dates back at least 6000 years, long before humans had discovered how to smelt iron. Archaeological evidence suggests that
3876-506: Is a multi-paned glass structure, resembling a small building, built on a roof for day or moon light. Sometimes includes an additional clerestory . May also be called a cupola . A bay window is a multi-panel window, with at least three panels set at different angles to create a protrusion from the wall line. An oriel window is a form of bay window. This form most often appears in Tudor-style houses and monasteries. It projects from
3990-418: Is a very powerful colouring agent, yielding dark green. Sulphur combined with carbon and iron salts produces amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. A glass melt can also acquire an amber colour from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Cadmium sulfide produces imperial red , and combined with selenium can produce shades of yellow, orange, and red. Addition of copper(II) oxide (CuO) produces
4104-449: Is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture ( glass batch ), stirring the melt, and crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing. Colour in glass may be obtained by addition of homogenously distributed electrically charged ions (or colour centres ). While ordinary soda–lime glass appears colourless in thin section, iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities produce
4218-676: Is extensively used for fibreglass , used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.), top-of-stove cookware, and halogen bulb glass. The addition of barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses. Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths. Fluorine lowers
4332-455: Is in widespread use in optical systems due to its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics . The most common and oldest applications of glass in optics are as lenses , windows , mirrors , and prisms . The key optical properties refractive index , dispersion , and transmission , of glass are strongly dependent on chemical composition and, to a lesser degree, its thermal history. Optical glass typically has
4446-489: Is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The sags and ripples observed in old glass were already there the day it was made; manufacturing processes used in the past produced sheets with imperfect surfaces and non-uniform thickness (the near-perfect float glass used today only became widespread in the 1960s). A 2017 study computed the rate of flow of the medieval glass used in Westminster Abbey from
4560-471: Is known as a fanlight, especially in the British Isles. Windows beside a door or window are called side-, wing-, margen-lights, and flanking windows. Also known as a louvered window, the jalousie window consists of parallel slats of glass or acrylic that open and close like a Venetian blind , usually using a crank or a lever. They are used extensively in tropical architecture. A jalousie door
4674-901: Is produced by forcing molten glass through a fine mesh by centripetal force and breaking the extruded glass fibres into short lengths using a stream of high-velocity air. The fibres are bonded with an adhesive spray and the resulting wool mat is cut and packed in rolls or panels. Besides common silica-based glasses many other inorganic and organic materials may also form glasses, including metals , aluminates , phosphates , borates , chalcogenides , fluorides , germanates (glasses based on GeO 2 ), tellurites (glasses based on TeO 2 ), antimonates (glasses based on Sb 2 O 3 ), arsenates (glasses based on As 2 O 3 ), titanates (glasses based on TiO 2 ), tantalates (glasses based on Ta 2 O 5 ), nitrates , carbonates , plastics , acrylic , and many other substances. Some of these glasses (e.g. Germanium dioxide (GeO 2 , Germania), in many respects
Nailsea Glassworks - Misplaced Pages Continue
4788-400: Is still sought after by collectors around the world. Part of the site of the glass works has been covered by a Tesco supermarket car park, leaving it relatively accessible for future archaeological digs . Archeological exploration was undertaken before the construction of the supermarket. Other parts of the site have been cleared and are being filled with a sand like substance to ensure that
4902-461: Is stronger than most metals, with a theoretical tensile strength for pure, flawless glass estimated at 14 to 35 gigapascals (2,000,000 to 5,100,000 psi) due to its ability to undergo reversible compression without fracture. However, the presence of scratches, bubbles, and other microscopic flaws lead to a typical range of 14 to 175 megapascals (2,000 to 25,400 psi) in most commercial glasses. Several processes such as toughening can increase
5016-408: Is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead, the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at T g . The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory . Generally, a glass exists in
5130-436: Is transparent, easily formed, and most suitable for window glass and tableware. However, it has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat. Soda–lime glass is typically used for windows , bottles , light bulbs , and jars . Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex , Duran ) typically contain 5–13% boron trioxide (B 2 O 3 ). Borosilicate glasses have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE
5244-408: Is used in situations where light or vision alone is needed as no ventilation is possible in such windows without the use of trickle vents or overglass vents. A single-hung sash window is a window that has one sash that is movable (usually the bottom one) and the other fixed. This is the earlier form of sliding sash window and is also cheaper. A sash window is the traditional style of window in
5358-596: Is used in two ways: a curved top window in a wall or an eyebrow dormer ; and a row of small windows usually under the front eaves such as the James-Lorah House in Pennsylvania. A fixed window is a window that cannot be opened, whose function is limited to allowing light to enter (unlike an unfixed window, which can open and close). Clerestory windows in church architecture are often fixed. Transom windows may be fixed or operable. This type of window
5472-642: The Danish language vindue and Norwegian Bokmål vindu , the direct link to eye is lost, just as for window . The Danish (but not the Bokmål ) word is pronounced fairly similarly to window . Window is first recorded in the early 13th century, and originally referred to an unglazed hole in a roof. Window replaced the Old English eagþyrl , which literally means 'eye-hole', and eagduru 'eye-door'. Many Germanic languages, however, adopted
5586-524: The Late Bronze Age , there was a rapid growth in glassmaking technology in Egypt and Western Asia . Archaeological finds from this period include coloured glass ingots , vessels, and beads. Much early glass production relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stoneworking , such as grinding and carving glass in a cold state. The term glass has its origins in the late Roman Empire , in
5700-581: The Old Norse vindauga , from vindr 'wind' and auga 'eye'. In Norwegian , Nynorsk , and Icelandic , the Old Norse form has survived to this day (in Icelandic only as a less used word for a type of small open "window", not strictly a synonym for gluggi , the Icelandic word for 'window' ). In Swedish , the word vindöga remains as a term for a hole through the roof of a hut, and in
5814-535: The Renaissance period in Europe, the use of large stained glass windows became much less prevalent, although stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th century. During the 13th century, the island of Murano , Venice , became a centre for glass making, building on medieval techniques to produce colourful ornamental pieces in large quantities. Murano glass makers developed
SECTION 50
#17327974439085928-537: The Roman glass making centre at Trier (located in current-day Germany) where the late-Latin term glesum originated, likely from a Germanic word for a transparent , lustrous substance. Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire in domestic, funerary , and industrial contexts, as well as trade items in marketplaces in distant provinces. Examples of Roman glass have been found outside of
6042-465: The dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and lowers the polarizability of the material. Fluoride silicate glasses are used in the manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. Glass-ceramic materials contain both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramic phases. They are formed by controlled nucleation and partial crystallisation of a base glass by heat treatment. Crystalline grains are often embedded within
6156-436: The glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda–lime glass for mass production is melted in glass-melting furnaces . Smaller-scale furnaces for speciality glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks. After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed . This may be achieved manually by glassblowing , which involves gathering
6270-510: The 10th century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals , with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint-Denis . By the 14th century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle , Paris, (1203–1248) and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral . With the change in architectural style during
6384-560: The 13th century BC, the earliest windows were unglazed openings in a roof to admit light during the day. Later, windows were covered with animal hide, cloth, or wood. Shutters that could be opened and closed came next. Over time, windows were built that both protected the inhabitants from the elements and transmitted light, using multiple small pieces of translucent material, such as flattened pieces of translucent animal horn, paper sheets, thin slices of marble (such as fengite ), or pieces of glass, set in frameworks of wood, iron or lead. In
6498-461: The 1930s, which later became known as Depression glass . In the 1950s, Pilkington Bros. , England , developed the float glass process, producing high-quality distortion-free flat sheets of glass by floating on molten tin . Modern multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since
6612-648: The Far East, paper was used to fill windows. The Romans were the first known users of glass for windows, exploiting a technology likely first developed in Roman Egypt . Specifically, in Alexandria c. 100 CE, cast-glass windows, albeit with poor optical properties, began to appear, but these were small thick productions, little more than blown-glass jars (cylindrical shapes) flattened out into sheets with circular striation patterns throughout. It would be over
6726-579: The Latin word fenestra to describe a window with glass, such as standard Swedish fönster , or German Fenster . The use of window in English is probably because of the Scandinavian influence on the English language by means of loanwords during the Viking Age . In English, the word fenester was used as a parallel until the mid-18th century. Fenestration is still used to describe
6840-687: The Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other applications in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy collectors. In the 21st century, glass manufacturers have developed different brands of chemically strengthened glass for widespread application in touchscreens for smartphones , tablet computers , and many other types of information appliances . These include Gorilla Glass , developed and manufactured by Corning , AGC Inc. 's Dragontrail and Schott AG 's Xensation. Glass
6954-543: The Pb ion renders it highly immobile and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda–lime glass (10 vs 10 Ω⋅cm, DC at 250 °C). Aluminosilicate glass typically contains 5–10% alumina (Al 2 O 3 ). Aluminosilicate glass tends to be more difficult to melt and shape compared to borosilicate compositions but has excellent thermal resistance and durability. Aluminosilicate glass
SECTION 60
#17327974439087068-435: The UK and many other parts of Europe. An awning window is a casement window that is hung horizontally, hinged on top, so that it swings outward like an awning . In addition to being used independently, they can be stacked, several in one opening, or combined with fixed glass. They are particularly useful for ventilation. A hopper window is a bottom-pivoting casement window that opens by tilting vertically, typically to
7182-485: The UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish. Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Once
7296-535: The UK, double-paned and triple-paned are referred to as double- glazing and triple-glazing. Triple-paned windows are now a common type of glazing in central to northern Europe. Quadruple glazing is now being introduced in Scandinavia. A hexagonal window is a hexagon -shaped window, resembling a bee cell or crystal lattice of graphite. The window can be vertically or horizontally oriented, openable or dead. It can also be regular or elongately-shaped and can have
7410-407: The UK, these are sometimes called Yorkshire sash windows, presumably because of their traditional use in that county. A casement window is a window with a hinged sash that swings in or out like a door comprising either a side-hung, top-hung (also called "awning window"; see below), or occasionally bottom-hung sash or a combination of these types, sometimes with fixed panels on one or more sides of
7524-509: The United Kingdom, and many other places that were formerly colonized by the UK, with two parts (sashes) that overlap slightly and slide up and down inside the frame. The two parts are not necessarily the same size; where the upper sash is smaller (shorter) it is termed a cottage window . Currently, most new double-hung sash windows use spring balances to support the sashes, but traditionally, counterweights held in boxes on either side of
7638-521: The United Kingdom, mostly producing low-grade bottle glass by Glassblowing . The products were sent all over the UK and some exported to the West Indies and the United States. Lucas's initial partners were William Coathupe and Henry Pater, although this company was dissolved in 1844 becoming Coathupe and Co. but then declined. In 1855 over 100 men and boys were employed. They were affected by
7752-719: The action of water, making it an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals. Nevertheless, although usually highly resistant to chemical attack, glass will corrode or dissolve under some conditions. The materials that make up a particular glass composition affect how quickly the glass corrodes. Glasses containing a high proportion of alkali or alkaline earth elements are more susceptible to corrosion than other glass compositions. The density of glass varies with chemical composition with values ranging from 2.2 grams per cubic centimetre (2,200 kg/m ) for fused silica to 7.2 grams per cubic centimetre (7,200 kg/m ) for dense flint glass. Glass
7866-481: The arrangement of windows within a façade , as well as defenestration , meaning 'to throw out of a window'. The Romans were the first known to use glass for windows, a technology likely first produced in Roman Egypt , in Alexandria c. 100 AD . Presentations of windows can be seen in ancient Egyptian wall art and sculptures from Assyria. Paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea, and Japan. In England, glass became common in
7980-411: The cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide ), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition). Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during
8094-427: The crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C. Fibreglass (also called glass fibre reinforced plastic, GRP) is a composite material made by reinforcing
8208-683: The desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability. Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability ( glass container coatings , glass container internal treatment ), strength ( toughened glass , bulletproof glass , windshields ), or optical properties ( insulated glazing , anti-reflective coating ). New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because
8322-701: The entrance of emergency rescuers. Vehicles, such as buses, aircraft, and trains frequently have emergency exit windows as well. A stained glass window is a window composed of pieces of colored glass, transparent, translucent or opaque , frequently portraying persons or scenes. Typically the glass in these windows is separated by lead glazing bars. Stained glass windows were popular in Victorian houses and some Wrightian houses, and are especially common in churches . A French door has two rows of upright rectangular glass panes (lights) extending its full length; and two of these doors on an exterior wall and without
8436-466: The exceptionally clear colourless glass cristallo , so called for its resemblance to natural crystal, which was extensively used for windows, mirrors, ships' lanterns, and lenses. In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, enamelling and gilding on glass vessels were perfected in Egypt and Syria. Towards the end of the 17th century, Bohemia became an important region for glass production, remaining so until
8550-459: The first true synthetic glass was made in Lebanon and the coastal north Syria , Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt . The earliest known glass objects, of the mid-third millennium BC, were beads , perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metalworking ( slags ) or during the production of faience , a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing . Early glass
8664-456: The fixed pane. A tilt and turn window can both tilt inwards at the top or open inwards from hinges at the side. This is the most common type of window in Germany, its country of origin. It is also widespread in many other European countries. In Europe, it is usual for these to be of the "turn first" type. i.e. when the handle is turned to 90 degrees the window opens in the side hung mode. With
8778-497: The following terms: The European harmonised standard hEN 14351–1, which deals with doors and windows, defines 23 characteristics (divided into essential and non essential ). Two other, preliminary European Norms that are under development deal with internal pedestrian doors (prEN 14351–2), smoke and fire resisting doors, and openable windows (prEN 16034). Windows can be a significant source of heat transfer. Therefore, insulated glazing units consist of two or more panes to reduce
8892-754: The former Roman Empire in China , the Baltics , the Middle East , and India . The Romans perfected cameo glass , produced by etching and carving through fused layers of different colours to produce a design in relief on the glass object. In post-classical West Africa, Benin was a manufacturer of glass and glass beads. Glass was used extensively in Europe during the Middle Ages . Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. From
9006-555: The glass and melt phases. Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms. Many polymer thermoplastics familiar to everyday use are glasses. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear , polymer glasses ( acrylic glass , polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate ) are
9120-493: The glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous. However, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids. Glass can form naturally from volcanic magma. Obsidian
9234-406: The glass transition temperature is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity in solids ). Though atomic motion at glass surfaces can be observed, and viscosity on the order of 10 –10 Pa s can be measured in glass, such a high value reinforces the fact that glass would not change shape appreciably over even large periods of time. For melt quenching, if the cooling
9348-545: The handle turned to 180 degrees the window opens in bottom hung mode. Most usually in the UK the windows will be "tilt first" i.e. bottom hung at 90 degrees for ventilation and side hung at 180 degrees for cleaning the outer face of the glass from inside the building. A transom window is a window above a door. In an exterior door the transom window is often fixed, in an interior door, it can open either by hinges at top or bottom, or rotate on hinges. It provided ventilation before forced air heating and cooling. A fan-shaped transom
9462-521: The historic unavailability of large panes of glass, the multi-lit (or lattice window ) was the most common window style until the beginning of the 20th century, and is still used in traditional architecture. An emergency exit window is a window big enough and low enough so that occupants can escape through the opening in an emergency, such as a fire. In many countries, exact specifications for emergency windows in bedrooms are given in many building codes . Specifications for such windows may also allow for
9576-436: The industrial plate glass-making processes were perfected in the late 19th century Modern windows are usually filled using glass, although transparent plastic is also used. The introduction of lancet windows into Western European church architecture from the 12th century CE built on a tradition of arched windows inserted between columns, and led not only to tracery and elaborate stained-glass windows but also to
9690-462: The inside, resembling a hopper chute. A pivot window is a window hung on one hinge on each of two opposite sides which allows the window to revolve when opened. The hinges may be mounted top and bottom (Vertically Pivoted) or at each jamb (Horizontally Pivoted). The window will usually open initially to a restricted position for ventilation and, once released, fully reverse and lock again for safe cleaning from inside. Modern pivot hinges incorporate
9804-458: The liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass. Examples include LiCl: R H 2 O (a solution of lithium chloride salt and water molecules) in the composition range 4< R <8. sugar glass , or Ca 0.4 K 0.6 (NO 3 ) 1.4 . Glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to problems identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells. Following
9918-622: The material, e.g. "glass" , " glasses ", " magnifying glass ". Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling ( quenching ) of the molten form. Some glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring, and obsidian has been used to make arrowheads and knives since the Stone Age . Archaeological evidence suggests glassmaking dates back to at least 3600 BC in Mesopotamia , Egypt , or Syria . The earliest known glass objects were beads , perhaps created accidentally during metalworking or
10032-481: The melt whilst it floats on a gas stream) or splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils or rollers), may be used to increase the cooling rate or to reduce crystal nucleation triggers. In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto
10146-433: The melt. The high density of lead glass (silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K 2 O) + soda (Na 2 O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina) results in a high electron density, and hence high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant and causing noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion . Lead glass has a high elasticity, making the glassware more workable and giving rise to
10260-619: The melting temperature and simplify glass processing. Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 , "soda") is a common additive and acts to lower the glass-transition temperature. However, sodium silicate is water-soluble , so lime (CaO, calcium oxide , generally obtained from limestone ), along with magnesium oxide (MgO), and aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), are commonly added to improve chemical durability. Soda–lime glasses (Na 2 O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) account for over 75% of manufactured glass, containing about 70 to 74% silica by weight. Soda–lime–silicate glass
10374-410: The metallic ions will absorb wavelengths of light corresponding to specific colours. In the manufacturing process, glasses can be poured, formed, extruded and moulded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes. The finished product is brittle but can be laminated or tempered to enhance durability. Glass is typically inert, resistant to chemical attack, and can mostly withstand
10488-409: The most significant architectural innovations of modern times, where glass buildings now often dominate the skylines of many modern cities . These systems use stainless steel fittings countersunk into recesses in the corners of the glass panels allowing strengthened panes to appear unsupported creating a flush exterior. Structural glazing systems have their roots in iron and glass conservatories of
10602-434: The myriad criteria for the design of windows, several pivotal criteria have emerged in daylight standards: location, time, weather, nature, and people. Of these criteria, windows that are designed to provide views of nature are considered to be the most important by people. A cross-window is a rectangular window usually divided into four lights by a mullion and transom that form a Latin cross . The term eyebrow window
10716-522: The nineteenth century Window A window is an opening in a wall , door , roof , or vehicle that allows the exchange of light and may also allow the passage of sound and sometimes air . Modern windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material , a sash set in a frame in the opening; the sash and frame are also referred to as a window. Many glazed windows may be opened, to allow ventilation , or closed to exclude inclement weather . Windows may have
10830-513: The other to make bottle glass. Some of the raw materials were sourced locally, including local sand (although this was later shipped in from further away) and lime from Walton in Gordano and Wraxall . Saltcake came from Netham Chemical Works in Bristol while kelp and other seaweeds were brought from Ireland and Wales. These were used in general manufacture and in some experimental work on
10944-407: The production of cylinder glass . John Hartley of Hartley Wood and Co moved to Nailsea in 1812 and began working with Robert Lucas Chance who was the eldest son of William Chance, one of the partners. In the 1820s a new cone was built which survived until 1905, and in the 1840s the"Lily cone" was added for the production of sheet glass. By 1835 the works became the fourth-largest of its kind in
11058-922: The production of faience , which is a form of pottery using lead glazes. Due to its ease of formability into any shape, glass has been traditionally used for vessels, such as bowls , vases , bottles , jars and drinking glasses. Soda–lime glass , containing around 70% silica , accounts for around 90% of modern manufactured glass. Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts or painted and printed with vitreous enamels , leading to its use in stained glass windows and other glass art objects. The refractive , reflective and transmission properties of glass make glass suitable for manufacturing optical lenses , prisms , and optoelectronics materials. Extruded glass fibres have applications as optical fibres in communications networks, thermal insulating material when matted as glass wool to trap air, or in glass-fibre reinforced plastic ( fibreglass ). The standard definition of
11172-405: The remains of the old glass works are preserved. One surviving building, which housed French kilns and gas-fired furnaces, has been converted into a garage premises. The site was designated as a scheduled monument in 2004. Further preservation work was funded by Nailsea Town Council included planting and landscaping, following the removal of contaminated soil. A green space was eventually built on
11286-471: The sash. In the US, these are usually opened using a crank , but in parts of Europe, they tend to use projection friction stays and espagnolette locking. Formerly, plain hinges were used with a casement stay . Handing applies to casement windows to determine direction of swing; a casement window may be left-handed, right-handed, or double. The casement window is the dominant type now found in modern buildings in
11400-424: The selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating selenium dioxide (SeO 2 ). Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH) 3 ) over alumina (Al 2 O 3 ). Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity
11514-474: The site and opened on 30 April 2015 by local business owner John Brown. 51°26′03″N 2°45′14″W / 51.4342°N 2.7540°W / 51.4342; -2.7540 Glass Glass is an amorphous ( non-crystalline ) solid. Because it is often transparent and chemically inert, glass has found widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in window panes, tableware , and optics . Some common objects made of glass are named after
11628-603: The start of the 20th century. By the 17th century, glass in the Venetian tradition was also being produced in England . In about 1675, George Ravenscroft invented lead crystal glass, with cut glass becoming fashionable in the 18th century. Ornamental glass objects became an important art medium during the Art Nouveau period in the late 19th century. Throughout the 20th century, new mass production techniques led to
11742-469: The strength of glass. Carefully drawn flawless glass fibres can be produced with a strength of up to 11.5 gigapascals (1,670,000 psi). The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumption
11856-460: The system Al-Fe-Si may undergo a first-order transition to an amorphous form (dubbed "q-glass") on rapid cooling from the melt. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images indicate that q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles with uniform spherical growth in all directions. While x-ray diffraction reveals the isotropic nature of q-glass, a nucleation barrier exists implying an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between
11970-416: The wall and does not extend to the ground. Originally a form of porch, they are often supported by brackets or corbels. Thermal, or Diocletian , windows are large semicircular windows (or niches) which are usually divided into three lights (window compartments) by two mullions. The central compartment is often wider than the two side lights on either side of it. A picture window is a large fixed window in
12084-451: The widespread availability of glass in much larger amounts, making it practical as a building material and enabling new applications of glass. In the 1920s a mould -etch process was developed, in which art was etched directly into the mould so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to cheap glassware in
12198-426: The window be locked into hinges on one side, while the rope on the other side is detached—so the window can be opened for fire escape or cleaning. A foldup has two equal sashes similar to a standard double-hung but folds upward allowing air to pass through nearly the full-frame opening. The window is balanced using either springs or counterbalances, similar to a double-hung. The sashes can be either offset to simulate
12312-433: The window is opened. Windows are primarily designed to facilitate a vital connection with the outdoors, offering those within the confines of the building visual access to the everchanging events occurring outside. The provision of this connection serves as an integral safeguard for the health and well-being of those inhabiting buildings, lest they experience the detrimental effects of enclosed buildings devoid of windows. Among
12426-404: The window were used. These were and are attached to the sashes using pulleys of either braided cord or, later, purpose-made chain. Three types of spring balances are called a tape or clock spring balance; channel or block-and-tackle balance, and a spiral or tube balance. Double-hung sash windows were traditionally often fitted with shutters . Sash windows can be fitted with simplex hinges that let
12540-399: The windows of ordinary homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century. In the 19th century American west, greased paper windows came to be used by pioneering settlers. Modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after the industrial plate glass making processes were fully perfected. In
12654-402: The year 1268. The study found that the room temperature viscosity of this glass was roughly 10 Pa · s which is about 10 times less viscous than a previous estimate made in 1998, which focused on soda-lime silicate glass. Even with this lower viscosity, the study authors calculated that the maximum flow rate of medieval glass is 1 nm per billion years, making it impossible to observe in
12768-853: Was established by John Robert Lucas, in 1788 because of the plentiful supply of coal for the furnaces, from Elms colliery and other local mines of the Nailsea Basin and outlier of the Bristol Coalfield . The choice of site may also have been influenced by plans for the Grand Western Canal which was planned to include a branch to Nailsea. Lucas had previously had interests in a brewery and glassworks in Bristol and another at Stanton Wick . The company initially traded as "Nailsea Crown Glass and Glass Bottle Manufacturers". Lucas originally built two "cones": one for window glass and
12882-453: Was originally used in the United Kingdom and United States during World War II to manufacture radomes . Uses of fibreglass include building and construction materials, boat hulls, car body parts, and aerospace composite materials. Glass-fibre wool is an excellent thermal and sound insulation material, commonly used in buildings (e.g. attic and cavity wall insulation ), and plumbing (e.g. pipe insulation ), and soundproofing . It
12996-556: Was rarely transparent and often contained impurities and imperfections, and is technically faience rather than true glass, which did not appear until the 15th century BC. However, red-orange glass beads excavated from the Indus Valley Civilization dated before 1700 BC (possibly as early as 1900 BC) predate sustained glass production, which appeared around 1600 BC in Mesopotamia and 1500 BC in Egypt. During
#907092