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64-522: Neurosis ( pl. : neuroses ) is a term mainly used today by followers of Freudian thinking to describe mental disorders caused by past anxiety , often that has been repressed . In recent history, the term has been used to refer to anxiety-related conditions more generally. The term "neurosis" is no longer used in condition names or categories by the World Health Organization 's International Classification of Diseases (ICD) or

128-688: A broad fattening diet and other modifications. Meanwhile, Freud developed a number of different theories of neurosis. The most impactful one was that it referred to mental disorders caused by the brain's defence against past psychological trauma. This redefined the general understanding and use of the word. It came to replace the concept of "hysteria". He held the First Congress for Freudian Psychology in Salzburg in April 1908. Subsequent Congresses continue today. Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR)

192-409: A disguised or distorted form, by way of dreams and neurotic symptoms, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes . The psychoanalyst seeks to interpret these conscious manifestations in order to understand the nature of the repressed. In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, but rather that which is actively repressed from conscious thought. Freud viewed

256-596: A fuller explanation. The cure originally involved women being isolated in bed, only communicating with a nurse trained to talk about unchallenging topics, a fattening diet of milk, plus massage and the application of electricity. Eventually, the cure advocated by the Mitchell family had less strict isolation and diet, and was followed by men as well as women. "Fat and Blood" was revised and reprinted for many decades. Austrian psychiatrist Josef Breuer first used psychoanalysis to treat hysteria in 1880–1882. Bertha Pappenheim

320-472: A given stage become fixated, or "stuck" in that stage. Freud's theory and work with psychosexual development led to Neo-Analytic/ Neo-Freudians who also believed in the importance of the unconscious, dream interpretations, defense mechanisms, and the integral influence of childhood experiences but had objections to the theory as well. They do not support the idea that development of the personality stops at age 6, instead, they believed development spreads across

384-532: A rumour that Breuer had been unable to manage erotic attention from Anna O. and had abandoned her case, though research indicates this never happened and Breuer remained involved with her case for several years while she remained unwell. In 1894 Breuer was elected a Corresponding Member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences . Breuer married Mathilde Altmann in 1868, and they had five children. His daughter Dora later committed suicide rather than be deported by

448-444: A well-accepted definition: In the following presentation we want to summarize a group of disease states as general neuroses, which are accompanied by more or less pronounced nervous dysfunctions. What is common to these manifestations of insanity is that we are constantly dealing with the morbid processing of vital stimuli; what they also have in common is the occurrence of more transitory, peculiar manifestations of illness, sometimes in

512-514: Is also no longer used for DSM or ICD conditions; however, it is a common name for one of the Big Five personality traits . A similar concept is included in the ICD-11 as the condition " negative affectivity ". The term neurosis was coined by Scottish doctor William Cullen to refer to "disorders of sense and motion" caused by a "general affection of the nervous system ". The term is derived from

576-420: Is associated with this method. Freud began his studies on psychoanalysis in collaboration with Dr. Josef Breuer , most notably in relation to the case study of Anna O. Anna O. was subject to a number of psychosomatic disturbances, such as not being able to drink out of fear. Breuer and Freud found that hypnosis was a great help in discovering more about Anna O. and her treatment. Freud frequently referred to

640-477: Is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as A therapeutic method, originated by Sigmund Freud, for treating mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the patient's mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, using techniques such as dream interpretation and free association. Also: a system of psychological theory

704-488: Is driven by the reality principle . The ego seeks to balance the conflicting aims of the id and superego, by trying to satisfy the id's drives in ways that are compatible with reality. The Ego is how we view ourselves: it is what we refer to as 'I' (Freud's word is the German ich , which simply means 'I'). The ego balances demands of the id, the superego, and of reality to maintain a healthy state of consciousness, where there

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768-443: Is equally evident in hysterical attacks when it is possible to gather from the patient's utterances that in each attack he is hallucinating the same event which provoked the first one. The situation is more obscure in the case of other phenomena. Our experiences have shown us, however, that the most various symptoms, which are ostensibly spontaneous and, as one might say, idiopathic products of hysteria, are just as strictly related to

832-481: Is focused on childhood. This might be an issue since most believe studying children can be inconclusive. One major concern lies in if observed personality will be a lifelong occurrence or if the child will shed it later in life. Psychoanalytic theory is a major influence in Continental philosophy and in aesthetics in particular. Freud is sometimes considered a philosopher. The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan , and

896-490: Is only minimal intrapsychic conflict. It thus reacts to protect the individual from stressors and from anxiety by distorting internal or external reality to a lesser or greater extent. This prevents threatening unconscious thoughts and material from entering the consciousness. The ten different defence mechanisms initially enumerated by Anna Freud are: repression , regression , reaction formation , isolation of affect , undoing , projection , introjection , turning against

960-595: The American Expeditionary Force ) released the book The care and treatment of mental diseases and war neuroses ("shell shock") in the British army in 1917, dealing primarily with what was considered was the best treatment for hysteria. His recommendations were broadly adopted in the US armed forces. Freud's most explanatory work on neurosis was his lectures later grouped together as "General Theory of

1024-642: The American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). According to the American Heritage Medical Dictionary of 2007, the term is "no longer used in psychiatric diagnosis". Neurosis is distinguished from psychosis , which refers to a loss of touch with reality. Its descendant term, neuroticism , refers to a personality trait of being prone to anxiousness and mental collapse. The term "neuroticism"

1088-433: The gag reflex and dermatographia , were used into the 20th century. French psychiatrist Phillipe Pinnel 's Nosographie philosophique ou La méthode de l'analyse appliquée à la médecine (1798) was greatly inspired by Cullen. It divided medical conditions into five categories, with one being "neurosis". This was divided into four basic types of mental disorder: melancholia , mania , dementia , and idiotism . Morphine

1152-617: The Greek word neuron (νεῦρον, 'nerve') and the suffix -osis (-ωσις, 'diseased' or 'abnormal condition'). It was first used in print in Cullen's System of Nosology , first published in Latin in 1769. Cullen used the term to describe various nervous disorders and symptoms that could not be explained physiologically . Physical features, however, were almost inevitably present, and physical diagnostic tests, such as exaggerated knee-jerks , loss of

1216-549: The Neuroses" (1916–17), forming part 3 of the book Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse (1917), later published in English as A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1920). In that work, Freud noted that: The meaning of neurotic symptoms was first discovered by J. Breuer in the study and felicitous cure of a case of hysteria which has since become famous (1880–82). It is true that P. Janet independently reached

1280-509: The Psychasthenias) in 1903. Janet followed this with the books The Major Symptoms of Hysteria in 1907, and Les Névroses (The Neuroses) in 1909. According to Janet, one cause of neurosis is when the mental force of a traumatic event is stronger than what someone can counter using their normal coping mechanisms. The Swiss psychiatrist Paul Charles Dubois published the book Les psychonévroses et leur traitement moral in 1904, which

1344-454: The ability to adjust to one's surroundings, similar to the later concepts of adjustment disorder and executive functions . Janet founded the French "Société de psychologie" in 1901. This later became the "Société française de psychologie", and continues today as France's main psychology body. Barbiturates are a class of highly addictive sedative drugs. The first barbiturate, barbital ,

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1408-440: The balance-sensing apparatus functions. Breuer is known best perhaps for his work during the 1880s with Anna O. (the case pseudonym of Bertha Pappenheim ), a woman suffering from "paralysis of her limbs, and anaesthesias , as well as disturbances of vision and speech". Breuer observed that her symptoms reduced or ended after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping . She also invented

1472-406: The censorship mechanism of repression in a disguised form, manifesting, for example, as dream elements or neurotic symptoms . Dreams and symptoms are supposed to be capable of being "interpreted" during psychoanalysis, with the help of methods such as free association , dream analysis, and analysis of verbal slips. In Freud's model the psyche consists of three different elements, the id, ego, and

1536-457: The clinical picture, although her overall condition continued to deteriorate. According to Breuer, the slow and laborious progress of her "remembering work" in which she recalled individual symptoms after they had occurred, thus "dissolving" them, came to a conclusion on 7 June 1882 after she had reconstructed the first night of hallucinations in Ischl. "She has fully recovered since that time" were

1600-431: The condition include "combat fatigue", "battle fatigue", "battle neurosis", "shell shock" and "operational stress reaction". The general psychological term acute stress disorder was first used for this condition at this time. The fight-or-flight response was first described by American physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon in 1915. American military psychiatrist Thomas W. Salmon (the chief consultant in psychiatry in

1664-710: The contrast between the states. This reduces anxiety and the effect of phobias. Freud published the detailed case study "Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose" (Notes Upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis) in 1909, documenting his treatment of " Rat Man ". Freud established the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) in March 1910. He arranged for Carl Jung to be its first president. This organisation chose to only provide both psychoanalytic training and recognition to medical doctors. The American Psychoanalytic Association

1728-453: The development of the personality ( psyche ). It is a stage theory that believes progress occurs through stages as the libido is directed to different body parts. The different stages, listed in order of progression, are Oral, Anal, Phallic ( Oedipus complex ), Latency, Genital. The Genital stage is achieved if people meet all their needs throughout the other stages with enough available sexual energy. Individuals who do not have their needs met in

1792-438: The field of psychoanalysis . French neurologist Paul Oulmont was mentored by Charcot. In his 1894 book Thérapeutique des névroses (Therapy of neuroses), he lists the neuroses as being hysteria , neurasthenia , exophthalmic goitre , epilepsy , migraine , Sydenham's chorea , Parkinson's disease and tetany . The fifth edition of German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin 's popular psychiatry textbook in 1896 gave "neuroses"

1856-422: The great majority of cases it is not possible to establish the point of origin by a simple interrogation of the patient, however thoroughly it may be carried out. This is in part because what is in question is often some experience which the patient dislikes discussing; but principally because he is genuinely unable to recollect it and often has no suspicion of the causal connection between the precipitating event and

1920-519: The groundwork for psychoanalysis, it was Freud who drew the consequences from Breuer's case". However, Breger notes that Breuer, while he valued Freud's contributions, didn't agree that sexual issues were the only cause of neurotic symptoms; he wrote in a 1907 letter to a colleague that “Freud is a man given to absolute and exclusive formulations: this is a psychical need which, in my opinion, leads to excessive generalization”. Freud later became hostile to Breuer, no longer giving him credit and helping spread

1984-469: The importance of fantasies (in extreme cases, hallucinations), hysteria [...], and the concept and method of catharsis which were Breuer's major contributions". Louis Breger has observed that in the Studies, "Freud is looking for a grand theory that will make him famous and, because of this, he is always fastening on what he thinks will be a single cause of hysteria, such as sexual conflict...Breuer, on

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2048-659: The lifespan. They extended Freud's work and encompassed more influence from the environment and the importance of conscious thought along with the unconscious. The most important theorists are Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development), Anna Freud , Carl Jung , Alfred Adler and Karen Horney , and including the school of object relations . Erikson's Psychosocial Development theory is based on eight stages of development. The stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generatively vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair. These are important to

2112-475: The main aspect of psychological trauma is dissociation (a disconnection of the conscious mind from reality). (Freud would later claim Janet as a major influence.) In 1891, Thomas Clouston published Neuroses of Development , which covered a wide range of physical and mental developmental conditions. Breuer came to mentor Freud. The pair released the paper "Ueber den psychischen Mechanismus hysterischer Phänomene. (Vorläufige Mittheilung.)" (known in English as "On

2176-448: The more serious appellation for this form of therapy, talking cure . Breuer later referred to it as the “cathartic method”. Breuer was then a mentor to the young Sigmund Freud, and had helped establish him in medical practice. Ernest Jones recalled, "Freud was greatly interested in hearing of the case of Anna O, which ... made a deep impression on him"; and in his work of 1909, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis , Freud stated, "I

2240-399: The name of Railway-spine , and which according to them would be better described as Railway-brain, are in fact, whether occurring in man or woman, simply manifestations of hysteria. Charcot documented around two dozen cases where psychological trauma appears to have caused hysteria. In some cases, the results are described like the modern concept of PTSD. Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud

2304-677: The nature of her condition, she went on to run an orphanage, and then found and lead the Jüdischer Frauenbund for twenty years.) The term psychoneurosis was coined by Scottish psychiatrist Thomas Clouston for his 1883 book Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases . He describes a condition that covers what is today considered the schizophrenia and autism spectrums (a combination of symptoms that would soon become better known as dementia praecox ). French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot came to believe that psychological trauma

2368-429: The other hand, writes about the many factors that produce symptoms, including traumas of a variety of kinds. He also gives others, such as Pierre Janet, credit and argues for “eclecticism”; he is open to many different ways of understanding and treating hysteria." The two men became increasingly estranged. From a Freudian consideration, "while Breuer, with his intelligent and amorous patient Anna O., had unwittingly laid

2432-433: The pathological phenomenon. As a rule it is necessary to hypnotize the patient and to arouse his memories under hypnosis of the time at which the symptom made its first appearance; when this has been done, it becomes possible to demonstrate the connection in the clearest and most convincing fashion... It is of course obvious that in cases of 'traumatic' hysteria what provokes the symptoms is the accident. The causal connection

2496-555: The philosophers Michel Foucault , and Jacques Derrida , have written extensively on how psychoanalysis informs philosophical analysis. When analyzing literary texts, the psychoanalytic theory is sometimes used (often specifically with regard to the motives of the author and the characters) to reveal purported concealed meanings or to purportedly better understand the author's intentions. Josef Breuer Josef Breuer ( / ˈ b r ɔɪ ər / BROY-ur ; German: [ˈbʁɔʏɐ] ; 15 January 1842 – 20 June 1925)

2560-456: The physical mechanism of hysterical phenomena: preliminary communication") in January 1893. It opens with: A chance observation has led us, over a number of years, to investigate a great variety of different forms and symptoms of hysteria, with a view to discovering their precipitating cause the event which provoked the first occurrence, often many years earlier, of the phenomenon in question. In

2624-661: The physical, sometimes in the psychic area. These attacks of fluctuations in mental balance are therefore not independent illnesses, but only the occasional increase in a persistent illness... It seems useful to me, for the time being, to distinguish between two main forms of general neuroses, epileptic and hysterical insanity. Pierre Janet published the two volume work Névroses et Idées Fixes (Neuroses and Fixations) in 1898. According to Janet, neuroses could be usefully divided into hysterias and psychasthenias . Hysterias induced such symptoms as anaesthesia, visual field narrowing, paralyses, and unconscious acts. Psychasthenias involved

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2688-430: The physicist and mathematician Ernst Mach discovered how the sense of balance (i.e. the perception of the head's imbalance) functions: that it is managed by information the brain receives from the movement of a fluid in the semicircular canals of the inner ear . That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz , but Goltz did not discover how

2752-411: The precipitating trauma as the phenomena to which we have just alluded and which exhibit the connection quite clearly. This paper was reprinted and supplemented with case studies in the pair's 1895 book Studien über Hysterie (Studies on Hysteria ). Of the book's five case studies, the most famous became that of Breuer's patient Bertha Pappenheim (given the pseudonym "Anna O."). This book established

2816-512: The psychoanalytic theory because it describes the different stages that people go through life. Each stage has a major impact on their life outcomes since they are going through conflicts at each stage and whichever route they decide to take, will have certain outcomes. Some claim that the theory is lacking in empirical data and too focused on pathology . Other criticisms are that the theory lacks consideration of culture and its influence on personality. Psychoanalytic theory comes from Freud and

2880-429: The psychoanalytic theory. In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious mind consists of ideas and drives that have been subject to the mechanism of Repression : anxiety-producing impulses in childhood are barred from consciousness, but do not cease to exist, and exert a constant pressure in the direction of consciousness. However, the content of the unconscious is only knowable to consciousness through its representation in

2944-417: The same result... Psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic and psychoanalytical are used in English. The latter is the older term, and at first, simply meant 'relating to the analysis of the human psyche.' But with the emergence of psychoanalysis as a distinct clinical practice, both terms came to describe that. Although both are still used, today, the normal adjective is psychoanalytic. Psychoanalysis

3008-443: The self, reversal into the opposite, and sublimation . In the same work, however, she details other manoeuvres such as identification with the aggressor and intellectualisation that would later come to be considered defence mechanisms in their own right. Furthermore, this list has been greatly expanded upon by other psychoanalysts, with some authors claiming to enumerate in excess of one hundred defence mechanisms. Freud's take on

3072-466: The study on Anna O. in his lectures on the origin and development of psychoanalysis. Observations in the Anna O. case led Freud to theorize that the problems faced by hysterical patients could be associated with painful childhood experiences that could not be recalled. The influence of these lost memories shaped the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of patients. These studies contributed to the development of

3136-569: The superego . The id is the aspect of personality that is driven by internal and basic drives and needs, such as hunger, thirst, and the drive for sex, or libido. The id acts in accordance with the pleasure principle . Due to the instinctual quality of the id, it is impulsive and unaware of the implications of actions. The superego is driven by the morality principle. It enforces the morality of social thought and action on an intrapsychic level. It employs morality, judging wrong and right and using guilt to discourage socially unacceptable behavior. The ego

3200-637: The term repression in 1824, in a discussion of unconscious ideas competing to get into consciousness. The tranquilising properties of potassium bromide were noted publicly by British doctor Charles Locock in 1857. Over the coming decades, this and other bromides were used in great quantities to calm people with neuroses. This led to many cases of bromism . French psychiatrist Henri Legrand du Saulle used exposure therapy to treat phobias. American doctor Weir Mitchell first published an account of his rest cure for non-psychotic mental disorders in 1875. His 1877 book "Fat and Blood: and how to make them" gave

3264-426: The unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, anxiety-producing wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of consciousness by the mechanism of repression. Such unconscious mental processes can only be recognized through analysis of their effects in consciousness. Unconscious thoughts are not directly accessible to ordinary introspection, but they are capable of partially evading

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3328-556: The university. Breuer, working for Ewald Hering at the military medical school in Vienna, was the first to demonstrate the role of the vagus nerve in the reflex nature of respiration. This was different from previous physiological belief, and changed the way scientists considered the relationship of the lungs to the nervous system. The mechanism is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex . Independent of each other in 1873, Breuer and

3392-513: The words with which Breuer concluded his case report. Accounts differ on the success of Pappenheim's treatment by Breuer. She did not speak about this episode in her later life, and vehemently opposed any attempts at psychoanalytic treatment of people in her care. Breuer was not quick to publish about this case. (Subsequent research has suggested Pappenheim may have had one of a number of neurological illnesses. This includes temporal lobe epilepsy , tuberculous meningitis , and encephalitis . Whatever

3456-785: Was a cause of some cases of hysteria . He wrote in his book Leçons sur les maladies du système nerveux , (1885-1887) (and published in English as Clinical Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System): Quite recently male hysteria has been studied by Messrs. Putnam [1884] and Walton [1883] in America, principally as it occurs after injuries, and especially after railway accidents. They have recognised, like Mr. Page, [1885] who in England has also paid attention to this subject, that many of those nervous accidents described under

3520-511: Was a student and working for my final examinations at the time when ... Breuer, first (in 1880-2) made use of this procedure ... Never before had anyone removed a hysterical symptom by such a method." Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies in Hysteria . These discussions of Breuer's treatment of Anna O. became "a formative basis of psychoanalytic practice, especially

3584-400: Was a student of Charcot in 1885–6. In 1893 Freud credited Charcot with being the source of "all the modern advances made in the understanding and knowledge of hysteria." French psychiatrist Pierre Janet released his book L'automatisme psychologique (Psychological automatism) in 1889, its third chapter detailing his understanding of hypnosis and the unconscious. At this time, he claimed that

3648-479: Was an Austrian physician who made discoveries in neurophysiology , and whose work during the 1880s with his patient Bertha Pappenheim , known as Anna O. , developed the talking cure (cathartic method) which was used as the basis of psychoanalysis as developed by his protégé Sigmund Freud . Born in Vienna , his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Vienna's Jewish community. Breuer's mother died when he

3712-405: Was first developed by American psychiatrist and physiologist Edmund Jacobson . This began at Harvard University in 1908. PMR involves learning to relieve the tension in specific muscle groups by first tensing and then relaxing each muscle group. When the muscle tension is released, attention is directed towards the differences felt during tension and relaxation so that the patient learns to recognize

3776-514: Was first isolated from opium in 1805, by German chemist Friedrich Sertürner . After the publication of his third paper on the topic in 1817, morphine became more widely known, and used to treat neuroses and other kinds of mental distress. After becoming addicted to this highly addictive substance, he warned "I consider it my duty to attract attention to the terrible effects of this new substance I called morphium in order that calamity may be averted." German psychologist Johann Friedrich Herbart used

3840-729: Was founded in 1911 by Welsh neurologist Ernest Jones , with the support of Freud. It followed the IPA's practice of only supporting psychoanalysis provided by medical doctors. Jung gave a speech explaining his understanding of Freud's work called Psychoanalysis and Neurosis in New York in 1912. It was published in 1916. The journal Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse was established in 1913, and continued until 1941. The battlefield stresses of World War I (1914–18) lead to many cases of strong short-term psychological symptoms, known today as " combat stress reaction " (CSR). Other terms for

3904-541: Was quite young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother and educated by his father until the age of eight. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year before enrolling in the medical school of the University of Vienna . He passed his medical examinations in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internist Johann Oppolzer at

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3968-420: Was synthesized in 1902 by German chemists Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering and was first marketed as "Veronal" in 1904. The similar barbiturate phenobarbital was brought to market in 1912 under the name "Luminal". Barbiturates became popular drugs in many countries to reduce neurotic anxiety and displaced the use of bromides. Janet published the book Les Obsessions et la Psychasthénie (The Obsessions and

4032-420: Was translated into English as "Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders (The Psychoneuroses and Their Moral Treatment)" in 1905. Dubois believed that neurosis could be successfully treated by listening carefully to patients, and rationally convincing them of the truth — what he called "rational psychotherapy". This was a form of cognitive behavioural therapy . He also followed Weir Mitchell 's rest cure, though with

4096-636: Was treated for a variety of symptoms that began when her father suddenly fell seriously ill in mid-1880 during a family holiday in Ischl . His illness was a turning point in her life. While sitting up at night at his sickbed she was suddenly tormented by hallucinations and a state of anxiety. At first the family did not react to these symptoms, but in November 1880, Breuer, a friend of the family, began to treat her. He encouraged her, sometimes under light hypnosis, to narrate stories, which led to partial improvement of

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