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97-687: In 1902 Sigmund Freud started to meet every week with colleagues to discuss his work, thus establishing the Psychological Wednesday Society . By 1908 there were 14 regular members and some guests including Max Eitingon , Carl Jung , Karl Abraham , and Ernest Jones , all future Presidents of the IPA. The Society became the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society . In 1907 Jones suggested to Jung that an international meeting should be arranged. Freud welcomed

194-543: A death drive , the source of compulsive repetition, hate, aggression, and neurotic guilt. In his later work, Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology , psychiatry , psychotherapy , and across the humanities . It thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate concerning its therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status, and whether it advances or hinders

291-461: A "neurasthenia" which he linked to the death of his father in 1896 and which prompted a "self-analysis" of his own dreams and memories of childhood. His explorations of his feelings of hostility to his father and rivalrous jealousy over his mother's affections led him to fundamentally revise his theory of the origin of the neuroses. Based on his early clinical work, Freud postulated that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were

388-513: A career in neurology . Freud read William Shakespeare in English; his understanding of human psychology may have been partially derived from Shakespeare's plays. Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity were of significant influence in the formation of his intellectual and moral outlook, especially concerning his intellectual non-conformism, as he pointed out in his Autobiographical Study . They would also have

485-410: A close working relationship with each of these independent organisations, but they are not officially or legally part of the IPA. The IPA's members qualify for membership by being a member of a "constituent organisation" (or the sole regional association). Constituent Organisations "Study Groups" are bodies of analysts which have not yet developed sufficiently to be a freestanding society, but that

582-499: A commission to translate four essays from John Stuart Mill 's collected works. He graduated with an MD in March 1881. In 1882 Freud began his medical career at Vienna General Hospital . His research work in cerebral anatomy led to the publication in 1884 of an influential paper on the palliative effects of cocaine, and his work on aphasia would form the basis of his first book On Aphasia: A Critical Study , published in 1891. Over

679-432: A critical review of existing theory, Freud gives detailed interpretations of his own and his patients' dreams in terms of wish-fulfillments made subject to the repression and censorship of the "dream-work". He then sets out the theoretical model of mental structure (the unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious) on which this account is based. An abridged version, On Dreams , was published in 1901. In works that would win him

776-575: A doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna . Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. Following the German annexation of Austria in March 1938, Freud left Austria to escape Nazi persecution. He died in exile in

873-705: A means of "rearousing [Freud's] affection". Eckstein nonetheless continued her analysis with Freud. She was restored to full mobility and went on to practice psychoanalysis herself. Freud, who had called Fliess "the Kepler of biology", later concluded that a combination of a homoerotic attachment and the residue of his "specifically Jewish mysticism" lay behind his loyalty to his Jewish friend and his consequent overestimation of both his theoretical and clinical work. Their friendship came to an acrimonious end with Fliess angry at Freud's unwillingness to endorse his general theory of sexual periodicity and accusing him of collusion in

970-604: A more general readership, Freud applied his theories outside the clinical setting in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901) and Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (1905). In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality , published in 1905, Freud elaborates his theory of infantile sexuality, describing its "polymorphous perverse" forms and the functioning of the "drives", to which it gives rise, in

1067-524: A necessary precondition for psychoneuroses (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), a formulation now known as Freud's seduction theory . In the light of his self-analysis, Freud abandoned the theory that every neurosis can be traced back to the effects of infantile sexual abuse, now arguing that infantile sexual scenarios still had a causative function, but it did not matter whether they were real or imagined and that in either case, they became pathogenic only when acting as repressed memories. This transition from

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1164-614: A paper entitled The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement . The IPA is the international accrediting and regulatory body for member organisations. The IPA's aims include creating new psychoanalytic groups, conducting research, developing training policies and establishing links with other bodies. It organizes a biennial Congress. There is a Regional Organisation for each of the IPA's three regions: Each of these three bodies consists of Constituent Organisations and Study Groups that are part of that IPA region. The IPA has

1261-638: A regular schedule of biannual Congresses commenced after the end of World War I to coordinate their activities and as a forum for presenting papers on clinical and theoretical topics. Abraham and Eitingon founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society in 1910 and then the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute and the Poliklinik in 1920. The Poliklinik's innovations of free treatment, and child analysis, and

1358-496: A rented room, in a locksmith's house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul , which his mother saw as a positive omen for the boy's future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg. Freud's half-brothers immigrated to Manchester , England, parting him from the "inseparable" playmate of his early childhood, Emanuel's son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children (Freud's sister, Anna,

1455-693: A result of his reading The Interpretation of Dreams , to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper Neues Wiener Tagblatt . The other three original members whom Freud invited to attend, Alfred Adler , Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also physicians and all five were Jewish by birth. Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud who had gone to university with him and kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas by attending his Saturday evening lectures. In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work, had opened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which he

1552-719: A series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. In February 1911, Adler, then the president of the society, resigned his position. At this time, Stekel also resigned from his position as vice president of the society. Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to form his own organization with nine other members who had also resigned from

1649-503: A smoker, eventually developing buccal cancer . Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for masturbation , "the one great habit." Freud had greatly admired his philosophy tutor, Franz Brentano , who was known for his theories of perception and introspection. Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (1874). Although Brentano denied its existence, his discussion of

1746-440: A substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly in respect of their common concerns with depth interpretation and "the bounding of desire by law". During the formative period of his work, Freud valued and came to rely on the intellectual and emotional support of his friend Wilhelm Fliess , a Berlin-based ear, nose, and throat specialist whom he had first met in 1887. Both men saw themselves as isolated from

1843-477: A three-year period, Freud worked in various departments of the hospital. His time spent in Theodor Meynert 's psychiatric clinic and as a locum in a local asylum led to an increased interest in clinical work. His substantial body of published research led to his appointment as a university lecturer or docent in neuropathology in 1885, a non-salaried post but one which entitled him to give lectures at

1940-422: Is their aim. "Allied Centres" are groups of people with an interest in psychoanalysis, in places where there are not already societies or study groups. The first 23 Congresses of IPA did not have a specific theme. In 1975, Erich Fromm questioned this organization and found that the psychoanalytic association was "organized according to standards rather dictatorial". In 1999, Elisabeth Roudinesco noted that

2037-659: The Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse , also edited by Rank. Plans for an international association of psychoanalysts were put in place and these were implemented at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 where Jung was elected, with Freud's support, as its first president. Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speaking world. Both were invited to Vienna following

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2134-649: The British Psychoanalytical Society , serving as its president until 1944. The Institute of Psychoanalysis was established in 1924 and the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis was established in 1926, both under Jones's directorship. The Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the directorship of Helene Deutsch . Ferenczi founded

2231-638: The Galvanic Skin Response , and a lecturer at Zurich University , although still only an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli Mental Hospital in Zürich. In March 1907, Jung and Ludwig Binswanger , also a Swiss psychiatrist, travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group. Thereafter, they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zürich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status,

2328-774: The Holocaust . Most survivors migrated to Israel , the United States , the United Kingdom or Australia . In 1959, the census showed 29,701 Jews were living in Lviv province . A small number have remained in Ukraine or Poland . In the popular perception, Galitzianers were considered to be more emotional and prayerful than their rivals, the Litvaks , who thought of them as irrational and uneducated. They, in turn, held

2425-768: The Lemberger Togblat. Towards the end of World War I, Galicia became a battleground of the Polish-Ukrainian War , which erupted in November 1918. During the conflict, 1,200 Jews joined the Ukrainian Galician Army and formed an all-Jewish Ukrainian battalion called Zhydivs’kyy Kurin (UHA). In exchange, they were allotted 10% of the seats in the parliament of the West Ukrainian People's Republic which emerged in

2522-921: The Matura in 1873 with honors. He loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew , Latin and Greek . Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. He had planned to study law, but joined the medical faculty at the university, where his studies included philosophy under Franz Brentano , physiology under Ernst Brücke , and zoology under Darwinist professor Carl Claus . In 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Claus's zoological research station in Trieste , dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. In 1877, Freud moved to Ernst Brücke's physiology laboratory where he spent six years comparing

2619-625: The New York Psychoanalytic Society the same year. His English translations of Freud's work began to appear from 1909. Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) and founded their own schools. From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism,

2716-691: The Polish pogrom in Lviv , wrote Alexander Prusin. Nevertheless, as noted by Robert Blobaum from West Virginia University , many more pogroms and assaults against Galician Jews were perpetrated by the Ukrainian side in rural areas and other towns. Between 22 and 26 March 1919, during massacres in Zhytomyr (Jitomir), between 500 and 700 Jews lost their lives at the hands of armed men from the Ukrainian republican army led by Symon Petliura . The chief organizer of

2813-602: The feminist cause. Nonetheless, Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. W. H. Auden 's 1940 poetic tribute to Freud describes him as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives". Sigmund Freud was born to Ashkenazi Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg , in the Austrian Empire (in Czech Příbor, now Czech Republic ),

2910-571: The Berlin Institute's standardisation of psychoanalytic training had a major influence on the wider psychoanalytic movement. In 1927, Ernst Simmel founded the Schloss Tegel Sanatorium on the outskirts of Berlin , the first such establishment to provide psychoanalytic treatment in an institutional framework. Freud organised a fund to help finance its activities and his architect son, Ernst, was commissioned to refurbish

3007-731: The Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic in 1929. Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established in Switzerland (1919), France (1926), Italy (1932), the Netherlands (1933), Norway (1933), and in Palestine (Jerusalem, 1933) by Eitingon, who had fled Berlin after Adolf Hitler came to power. The New York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931. The 1922 Berlin Congress

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3104-495: The Congress to advance the impact of Freud's work. A journal, the Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen , was launched in 1909 under the editorship of Jung. This was followed in 1910 by the monthly Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse edited by Adler and Stekel, in 1911 by Imago , a journal devoted to the application of psychoanalysis to the field of cultural and literary studies edited by Rank and in 1913 by

3201-535: The Congress. There were, as Jones records, "forty-two present, half of whom were or became practising analysts." In addition to Jones and the Viennese and Zürich contingents accompanying Freud and Jung, also present and notable for their subsequent importance in the psychoanalytic movement were Karl Abraham and Max Eitingon from Berlin, Sándor Ferenczi from Budapest and the New York-based Abraham Brill . Important decisions were taken at

3298-463: The IPA tend to come from a 1950s Lacanian point of view, unaware of recent developments, and of the variety of schools and training models within the association in recent decades. One of the three training models in the IPA (the French Model), is mostly due to Lacan's ideas and their perspectives regarding the training. Among Roudinesco's other criticisms was her reference to " homophobia " in

3395-488: The IPA's attempts to professionalize psychoanalysis had become "a machine to manufacture significance". She also said that in France, "Lacanian colleagues looked upon the IPA as bureaucrats who had betrayed psychoanalysis in favour of an adaptive psychology in the service of triumphant capitalism". She wrote of the "IPA['s] Legitimist Freudianism, as mistakenly called "orthodox" ". On the other hand, most criticisms laid against

3492-534: The IPA, considered a "disgrace of psychoanalysis. According to psychiatrist Albert Le Dorze, the association is homophobic. The archive of the International Psychoanalytical Association is held at Wellcome Collection (ref no: SA/IPA ). Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( / f r ɔɪ d / FROYD ; German: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfrɔʏt] ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud ; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939)

3589-676: The Litvaks in disdain, derogatively referring to them as tseylem-kop ("cross heads"), or Jews assimilated to the point of being Christian. This coincides with the fact that Hasidism was most influential in Ukraine and southern Poland but was fiercely resisted in Lithuania (and even the form of Hasidism that took root there, namely Chabad , was more intellectually inclined than the other Hasidic groups). The two groups diverged in their Yiddish accents and even in their cuisine , separated by

3686-724: The Nervous System at Harvard , who invited Freud to his country retreat where they held extensive discussions over a period of four days. Putnam's subsequent public endorsement of Freud's work represented a significant breakthrough for the psychoanalytic cause in the United States. When Putnam and Jones organised the founding of the American Psychoanalytic Association in May 1911 they were elected president and secretary respectively. Brill founded

3783-625: The Polish national census of 1921, there were 2,845,364 Jews living in the country; but, by late 1938 that number had grown by over 16% to approximately 3,310,000. Between the end of the Polish–Soviet War and late 1938, the Jewish population of the Republic had grown by over 464,000. In September 1939, most of Galicia passed to Soviet Ukraine . The majority of Galician Jews were murdered during

3880-639: The Protestant 'Confession' to avoid one. A civil ceremony for Bernays and Freud took place on 13 September and a religious ceremony took place the following day, with Freud having been hastily tutored in the Hebrew prayers. The Freuds had six children: Mathilde (b. 1887), Jean-Martin (b. 1889), Oliver (b. 1891), Ernst (b. 1892), Sophie (b. 1893), and Anna (b. 1895). From 1891 until they left Vienna in 1938, Freud and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse 19 , near Innere Stadt . On 8 December 1897 Freud

3977-622: The Salzburg Congress and a division of labour was agreed with Brill given the translation rights for Freud's works, and Jones, who was to take up a post at the University of Toronto later in the year, tasked with establishing a platform for Freudian ideas in North American academic and medical life. Jones's advocacy prepared the way for Freud's visit to the United States, accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in September 1909 at

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4074-429: The Unconscious ) making it clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology . Anticipating the final breakdown of the relationship between Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated the formation of a Secret Committee of loyalists charged with safeguarding the theoretical coherence and institutional legacy of

4171-572: The United Kingdom in 1939. In founding psychoanalysis , Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference , establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud's redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfilments provided him with models for

4268-518: The University of Vienna. In 1886 Freud resigned his hospital post and entered private practice specializing in "nervous disorders". The same year he married Martha Bernays , the granddaughter of Isaac Bernays , a chief rabbi in Hamburg. Freud was, as an atheist , dismayed at the requirement in Austria for a Jewish religious ceremony and briefly considered, before dismissing, the prospect of joining

4365-632: The Wednesday group was reconstituted as the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society with Freud as president, a position he relinquished in 1910 in favor of Adler in the hope of neutralizing his increasingly critical standpoint. The first woman member, Margarete Hilferding , joined the Society in 1910 and the following year she was joined by Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina Spielrein who were both Russian psychiatrists and graduates of

4462-651: The Zürich University medical school. Before the completion of her studies, Spielrein had been a patient of Jung at the Burghölzli and the clinical and personal details of their relationship became the subject of an extensive correspondence between Freud and Jung. Both women would go on to make important contributions to the work of the Russian Psychoanalytic Society founded in 1910. Freud's early followers met together formally for

4559-1046: The approach of his friend and collaborator, Josef Breuer , in a type of hypnosis that was different from the French methods he had studied, in that it did not use suggestion. The treatment of one particular patient of Breuer's proved to be transformative for Freud's clinical practice. Described as Anna O. , she was invited to talk about her symptoms while under hypnosis (she would coin the phrase " talking cure "). Her symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of traumatic incidents associated with their onset. The inconsistent results of Freud's early clinical work eventually led him to abandon hypnosis, having concluded that more consistent and effective symptom relief could be achieved by encouraging patients to talk freely, without censorship or inhibition, about whatever ideas or memories occurred to them. He called this procedure " free association ". In conjunction with this, Freud found that patients' dreams could be fruitfully analyzed to reveal

4656-668: The army of General Edward Rydz-Śmigły . Although the Polish losses were estimated at more than 10,000 dead and wounded, the Western Ukrainian army lost in excess of 15,000 men. "Despite the official neutrality, some Jewish men had been noticed aiding the combat Ukrainian units, and this fact alone caused a great enthusiasm in the Ukrainian press." Reportedly, the Council of Ministers of the West Ukrainian People's Republic provided assistance to Jewish victims of

4753-420: The brains of humans with those of other vertebrates such as frogs, lampreys as well as also invertebrates, for example crayfish . His research work on the biology of nervous tissue proved seminal for the subsequent discovery of the neuron in the 1890s. Freud's research work was interrupted in 1879 by the obligation to undertake a year's compulsory military service. The lengthy downtimes enabled him to complete

4850-504: The break finally came in 1926 when Rank resigned from his official posts in the IPA and left Vienna for Paris. His place on the committee was taken by Anna Freud . Rank eventually settled in the United States where his revisions of Freudian theory were to influence a new generation of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies of the IPA. After the founding of the IPA in 1910, an international network of psychoanalytical societies, training institutes, and clinics became well established and

4947-517: The building. It was forced to close in 1931 for economic reasons. The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society became the Russian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute in 1922. Freud's Russian followers were the first to benefit from translations of his work, the 1904 Russian translation of The Interpretation of Dreams appearing nine years before Brill's English edition. The Russian Institute was unique in receiving state support for its activities, including publication of translations of Freud's works. Support

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5044-404: The clinical analysis of symptom formation and the underlying mechanisms of repression . On this basis, Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, ego and super-ego . Freud postulated the existence of libido , sexualised energy with which mental processes and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and

5141-442: The complex structuring of unconscious material and to demonstrate the psychic action of repression which, he had concluded, underlay symptom formation. By 1896 he was using the term " psychoanalysis " to refer to his new clinical method and the theories on which it was based. Freud's development of these new theories took place during a period in which he experienced heart irregularities, disturbing dreams and periods of depression,

5238-575: The death of her fiancé. The close relationship she formed with Freud led to rumours, started by Carl Jung , of an affair. The discovery of a Swiss hotel guest-book entry for 13 August 1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with his sister-in-law, has been presented as evidence of the affair. Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker. He believed smoking enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise self-control in moderating it. Despite health warnings from colleague Wilhelm Fliess , he remained

5335-437: The enhanced status of "professor ordinarius" in 1920). Despite support from the university, his appointment had been blocked in successive years by the political authorities and it was secured only with the intervention of an influential ex-patient, Baroness Marie Ferstel, who (supposedly) had to bribe the minister of education with a valuable painting. Freud continued with the regular series of lectures on his work which, since

5432-403: The etiology of what was then called the "actual neuroses," primarily neurasthenia and certain physically manifested anxiety symptoms. They maintained an extensive correspondence from which Freud drew on Fliess's speculations on infantile sexuality and bisexuality to elaborate and revise his own ideas. His first attempt at a systematic theory of the mind, his Project for a Scientific Psychology ,

5529-507: The experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research. Charcot specialized in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Once he had set up in private practice in Vienna in 1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work. He adopted

5626-513: The first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia . His father, Jakob Freud , a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakob's family were Hasidic Jews and, although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition, he came to be known for his Torah study . He and Freud's mother, Amalia Nathansohn , who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in

5723-510: The first time at the Hotel Bristol, Salzburg on 27 April 1908. This meeting, which was retrospectively deemed to be the first International Psychoanalytic Congress, was convened at the suggestion of Ernest Jones , then a London-based neurologist who had discovered Freud's writings and begun applying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work. Jones had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they met up again in Zürich to organize

5820-431: The formation of sexual identity. The same year he published Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria , which became one of his more famous and controversial case studies . Known as the 'Dora' case study, for Freud it was illustrative of hysteria as a symptom and contributed to his understanding of the importance of transference as a clinical phenomena. In other of his early case studies Freud set out to describe

5917-405: The group. This new formation was initially called Society for Free Psychoanalysis but it was soon renamed the Society for Individual Psychology . In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with a psychological position he devised called individual psychology . In 1912, Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (published in English in 1916 as Psychology of

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6014-418: The invitation of Stanley Hall , president of Clark University , Worcester, Massachusetts, where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis. The event, at which Freud was awarded an Honorary Doctorate, marked the first public recognition of Freud's work and attracted widespread media interest. Freud's audience included the distinguished neurologist and psychiatrist James Jackson Putnam , Professor of Diseases of

6111-446: The late 18th century. Galician Jews primarily spoke Yiddish . In the modern period, Jews were the third most numerous ethnic group in Big Galicia, after Poles and Ruthenians . At the time that Galicia was annexed by Austria (i.e. the Habsburg monarchy ), in 1772, there were approximately 150,000 to 200,000 Jews residing there, comprising 5–6.5% of the total population; by 1857 the Jewish population had risen to 449,000, or 9.6% of

6208-399: The local economy such as retail sales and trade. They were also successful in the government; emancipated in 1867, Galician Jews constituted 58 percent of Galicia's civil servants and judges by 1897. During the 19th century Galicia and its main city, Lviv ( Lemberg in Yiddish), became a center of Yiddish literature . Lviv was the home of the world's first Yiddish-language daily newspaper,

6305-412: The mid-1880s as a docent of Vienna University, he had been delivering to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic. From the autumn of 1902, a number of Viennese physicians who had expressed interest in Freud's work were invited to meet at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology. This group

6402-403: The most formidable intellect among the early Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry. Max Graf , a Viennese musicologist and father of " Little Hans ", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception, described

6499-488: The nature of his disastrous role, and in subsequent letters maintained a tactful silence on the matter or else returned to the face-saving topic of Eckstein's hysteria. Freud ultimately, in light of Eckstein's history of adolescent self-cutting and irregular nasal (and menstrual) bleeding, concluded that Fliess was "completely without blame", as Eckstein's post-operative haemorrhages were hysterical "wish-bleedings" linked to "an old wish to be loved in her illness" and triggered as

6596-416: The newly reborn Second Polish Republic were protected by a series of explicit clauses in the Versailles Treaty signed by President Paderewski . In 1921, Poland's March Constitution gave the Jews the same legal rights as other citizens and guaranteed them religious tolerance and freedom of religious holidays. The number of Jews migrating to Poland from Ukraine and Soviet Russia grew rapidly. According to

6693-413: The plagiarism of his work. After Fliess failed to respond to Freud's offer of collaboration over the publication of his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1906, their relationship came to an end. In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a three-month fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot , a renowned neurologist who was conducting scientific research into hypnosis . He was later to recall

6790-463: The pogrom became minister of war soon thereafter. Simultaneous Ukrainian pogroms took place in Berdichev, Uma, and Cherniakhov among other places. The Polish–Soviet War ended with the Peace of Riga signed in March 1921. The borders between Poland and Soviet Russia remained in force until the invasion of Poland in September 1939, although serious abuses against the Jews, including pogroms, continued in Soviet Ukraine . The rights of minorities in

6887-406: The prevailing clinical and theoretical mainstream because of their ambitions to develop radical new theories of sexuality. Fliess developed highly eccentric theories of human biorhythms and a nasogenital connection which are today considered pseudoscientific. He shared Freud's views on the importance of certain aspects of sexuality – masturbation , coitus interruptus , and the use of condoms – in

6984-582: The proposal. The meeting took place in Salzburg on April 27, 1908. Jung named it the "First Congress for Freudian Psychology". It is later reckoned to be the first International Psychoanalytical Congress. Even so, the IPA had not yet been founded. The IPA was established at the next Congress held at Nuremberg in March 1910. Its first President was Carl Jung , and its first Secretary was Otto Rank . Sigmund Freud considered an international organization to be essential to advance his ideas. In 1914 Freud published

7081-465: The psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the autumn of 1912, the Committee comprised Freud, Jones, Abraham, Ferenczi, Rank, and Hanns Sachs . Max Eitingon joined the Committee in 1919. Each member pledged himself not to make any public departure from the fundamental tenets of psychoanalytic theory before he had discussed his views with the others. After this development, Jung recognised that his position

7178-409: The ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society: The gatherings followed a definite ritual. First one of the members would present a paper. Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigars and cigarettes were on the table and were consumed in great quantities. After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would begin. The last and decisive word was always spoken by Freud himself. There

7275-490: The same month and was disbanded nine months later. The West Ukrainian government respected Jewish neutrality during the Polish-Ukrainian conflict by an order of Yevhen Petrushevych , which protected Jews from being mobilized against their will or forced to contribute to the Ukrainian military effort. Both Ukrainian and pro-Ukrainian Jewish armed units suffered significant losses as they retreated from Galicia before

7372-598: The subgroup of Ashkenazi Jews originating and developed in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and Bukovina from contemporary western Ukraine ( Lviv , Ivano-Frankivsk , and Ternopil Oblasts) and from south-eastern Poland ( Subcarpathian and Lesser Poland ). Galicia proper, which was inhabited by Ruthenians, Poles and Jews, became a royal province within Austria-Hungary after the Partitions of Poland in

7469-456: The symptomatology of obsessional neurosis in the case of the Rat man , and phobia in the case of Little Hans . In 1902, Freud, at last, realised his long-standing ambition to be made a university professor. The title "professor extraordinarius" was important to Freud for the recognition and prestige it conferred, there being no salary or teaching duties attached to the post (he would be granted

7566-609: The theory of infantile sexual trauma as a general explanation of how all neuroses originate to one that presupposes autonomous infantile sexuality provided the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation of the theory of the Oedipus complex . Freud described the evolution of his clinical method and set out his theory of the psychogenetic origins of hysteria, demonstrated in several case histories, in Studies on Hysteria published in 1895 (co-authored with Josef Breuer ). In 1899, he published The Interpretation of Dreams in which, following

7663-491: The time, and also because he was overwhelmed by the "wealth of ideas" he encountered when he read Nietzsche. Freud sometimes would deny the influence of Nietzsche's ideas. One historian quotes Peter L. Rudnytsky, who says that based on Freud's correspondence with his adolescent friend Eduard Silberstein, Freud read Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy and probably the first two of the Untimely Meditations when he

7760-549: The tissue of the nose and genitalia were linked, was curable by removal of part of the middle turbinate . Fliess's surgery proved disastrous, resulting in profuse, recurrent nasal bleeding; he had left a half-metre of gauze in Eckstein's nasal cavity whose subsequent removal left her permanently disfigured. At first, though aware of Fliess's culpability and regarding the remedial surgery in horror, Freud could bring himself only to intimate delicately in his correspondence with Fliess

7857-524: The total population. In 1910, the 872,000 Jews living in Galicia comprised 10.9% of the total population, compared to approximately 45.4% Poles, 42.9% Ruthenian, and 0.8% Germans. Most of Galician Jewry lived poorly, largely working in small workshops and enterprises, and as craftsmen—including tailors, carpenters, hat makers, jewelers and opticians. Almost 80 percent of all tailors in Galicia were Jewish. The main occupation of Jews in towns and villages

7954-437: The unconscious probably helped introduce Freud to the concept. Freud owned and made use of Charles Darwin 's major evolutionary writings and was also influenced by Eduard von Hartmann 's The Philosophy of the Unconscious (1869). Other texts of importance to Freud were by Fechner and Herbart , with the latter's Psychology as Science arguably considered to be of underrated significance in this respect. Freud also drew on

8051-518: The withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it. The final defection from Freud's inner circle occurred following the publication in 1924 of Rank's The Trauma of Birth which other members of the Committee read as, in effect, abandoning the Oedipus Complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and Jones became increasingly forceful critics of Rank and though he and Freud were reluctant to end their close and long-standing relationship

8148-544: The work of Theodor Lipps , who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy. Though Freud was reluctant to associate his psychoanalytic insights with prior philosophical theories, attention has been drawn to analogies between his work and that of both Schopenhauer and Nietzsche . In 1908, Freud said that he occasionally read Nietzsche, and was strongly fascinated by his writings, but did not study him, because he found Nietzsche's "intuitive insights" resembled too much his own work at

8245-407: Was a Galician Jew whose family migrated to the U.S. in the first decade of the 20th century. Under Habsburg rule, Galicia's Jewish population increased sixfold, from 144,000 in 1776 to 872,000 in 1910, due to a high birth rate and a steady stream of refugees fleeing pogroms in the neighboring Russian Empire. The Jews constituted one third of the population of many cities and came to dominate parts of

8342-496: Was abruptly annulled in 1924, when Joseph Stalin came to power, after which psychoanalysis was denounced on ideological grounds. After helping found the American Psychoanalytic Association in 1911, Ernest Jones returned to Britain from Canada in 1913 and founded the London Psychoanalytic Society. In 1919, he dissolved this organisation and, with its core membership purged of Jungian adherents, founded

8439-427: Was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis , a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies seen as originating from conflicts in the psyche , through dialogue between patient and psychoanalyst, and the distinctive theory of mind and human agency derived from it. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg , in the Austrian Empire . He qualified as

8536-517: Was born in 1858; a brother, Julius born in 1857, had died in infancy) firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born: Rosa (b. 1860), Marie (b. 1861), Adolfine (b. 1862), Paula (b. 1864), Alexander (b. 1866). In 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium , a prominent high school. He proved to be an outstanding pupil and graduated from

8633-489: Was called the Wednesday Psychological Society ( Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft ) and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement. Freud founded this discussion group at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel . Stekel had studied medicine; his conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as

8730-811: Was developed as a metapsychology with Fliess as interlocutor. However, Freud's efforts to build a bridge between neurology and psychology were eventually abandoned after they had reached an impasse, as his letters to Fliess reveal, though some ideas of the Project were to be taken up again in the concluding chapter of The Interpretation of Dreams . Freud had Fliess repeatedly operate on his nose and sinuses to treat "nasal reflex neurosis", and subsequently referred his patient Emma Eckstein to him. According to Freud, her history of symptoms included severe leg pains with consequent restricted mobility, as well as stomach and menstrual pains. These pains were, according to Fliess's theories, caused by habitual masturbation which, as

8827-532: Was initiated into the German Jewish cultural association B'nai B'rith , to which he remained linked for all his life. Freud gave a speech on the interpretation of dreams, which had an enthusiastic reception. It anticipated the book of the same name , which was published for the first time two years later. In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister, became a permanent member of the Freud household after

8924-457: Was seventeen. Freud bought Nietzsche's collected works in 1900; telling Wilhelm Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche's works "the words for much that remains mute in me." Later, he said he had not yet opened them. Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings, according to Peter Gay, "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied." His interest in philosophy declined after he decided on

9021-473: Was the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet who made the heretofore prevailing methods of psychological investigation appear superficial. By 1906, the group had grown to sixteen members, including Otto Rank , who was employed as the group's paid secretary. In the same year, Freud began a correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung who was by then already an academically acclaimed researcher into word-association and

9118-581: Was the director in Vienna. In the same year, his medical textbook, Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practicing Physicians , was published. In it, he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method. Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 committed suicide. Reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse which had been founded in 1901. He died prematurely in 1917. Adler, regarded as

9215-578: Was the last Freud attended. By this time his speech had become seriously impaired by the prosthetic device he needed as a result of a series of operations on his cancerous jaw. He kept abreast of developments through regular correspondence with his principal followers and via the circular letters and meetings of the Secret Committee which he continued to attend. Galician Jews Galician Jews or Galitzianers ( Yiddish : גאַליציאַנער , romanized :  Galitsianer ) are members of

9312-765: Was trade: wholesale , stationery and retail. However, the Jewish inclination towards education was overcoming barriers. The number of Jewish intellectual workers proportionally was much higher than that of Ruthenian or Polish ones in Galicia. Of 1,700 physicians in Galicia, 1,150 were Jewish; 41 percent of workers in culture, theaters and cinema, over 65 percent of barbers, 43 percent of dentists, 45 percent of senior nurses in Galicia were Jewish, and 2,200 Jews were lawyers. For comparison, there were only 450 Ruthenian (Ukrainian) lawyers. Galician Jewry produced four Nobel prize winners: Isidor Isaac Rabi (physics), Roald Hoffman (chemistry), Georges Charpak (physics) and S.Y. Agnon (literature). Henry Roth , who wrote Call It Sleep ,

9409-472: Was untenable and resigned as editor of the Jahrbuch and then as president of the IPA in April 1914. The Zürich branch of the IPA withdrew from membership the following July. Later the same year, Freud published a paper entitled " The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement ", the German original being first published in the Jahrbuch , giving his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and

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