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41-627: Nizamiyyah institutes were among the first well organized institutions of higher learning in the Muslim world . The quality of education was among the highest in the Islamic world, and they were even renowned in Europe. They were supported financially, politically, and spiritually by the royal establishment and the elite class. Some scholars have suggested that the establishment of the Nizamiyya madrasas

82-432: A kuttab , or elementary school, that taught youth how to read, write, and memorize religious texts. The system of teaching was not rigid: attendance was not mandatory and students could follow the courses of their choice. Students who followed a course and became knowledgeable enough to teach the subject on their own were granted a certificate called an ijazah by their instructor. Rich libraries were also attached to

123-669: A more advanced level. Around the turn of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, some of them developed into autonomous universities. A notable example is when the University of Paris grew out of the schools associated with the Cathedral of Notre Dame , the Monastery of Ste. Geneviève , and the Abbey of St. Victor . Italian universities are among the oldest universities in the world; the University of Bologna (founded in 1088) notably,

164-525: A professor. Persian poet Sa'di was a student of the Baghdad Nizamiyyah. Other nizamiyyah schools were located in Nishapur , Amol , Balkh , Herat and Isfahan . Nizam ul-Mulk was finally assassinated en route from Isfahan to Baghdad in 1092 CE. According to several books, he was assassinated by a Nizari Ismaili (an Assassin ). According to Mughatil ibn Bakri , a staff member of

205-475: Is the oldest one ever ; also, University of Naples Federico II (founded in 1224) are is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation. Ez-Zitouna University Ez-Zitouna University ( Arabic : جامعة الزيتونة , romanized :  Jāmi‘a al-Zaytūna , French : Université Ez-Zitouna ) is a public ancient medieval university in Tunis , Tunisia. The university originates in

246-499: Is described in some detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the fifth century CE. It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the fifth century CE. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya . The famous treatise Arthashastra ( Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics ) by Chanakya,

287-512: Is known to us mainly through Tibetan sources, especially the writings of Tāranātha , the Tibetan monk historian of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Vikramashila was one of the largest Buddhist universities, with more than one hundred teachers and about one thousand students. It produced eminent scholars who were often invited by foreign countries to spread Buddhist learning, culture and religion. The most distinguished and eminent among all

328-719: Is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya), the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic doctor Charaka studied at Taxila. Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery , hunting , and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school , medical school , and school of military science . Vikramashila

369-469: The Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad , he alleges that Nizam al-Mulk converted to Shia Islam after a Sunni -Shia debate held on the orders of Sultan Malik Shah I , who also converted to Shia'ism. But it is thereafter that they were both assassinated. The curriculum initially focused on religious studies , Islamic law , Arabic literature , and arithmetic , and later extended to history , mathematics ,

410-842: The Al-Zaytuna Mosque , founded at the end of the 7th century or in the early 8th century, which developed into a major Islamic centre of learning in North Africa . It consists of the Higher Institute of Theology and the Higher Institute of Islamic Civilisation in Tunis and a research institution, the Center of Islamic Studies, in Kairouan . There is little information about teaching at the Zaytuna Mosque prior to

451-604: The Joseon dynasty which combined functions of a Confucian shrine and a preparatory school. The Seonggyungwan was founded by in 1398 to offer prayers and memorials to Confucius and his disciples, and to promote the study of the Confucian canon . It was the successor to Gukjagam from the Goryeo dynasty (992). It was reopened as Sungkyunkwan University , a private Western-style university, in 1946. The Academy of Gondishapur

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492-642: The Peripatetic school , the students of which met at the Lyceum gymnasium in Athens. The school also ceased in 86 BC during the famine, siege and sacking of Athens by Sulla . The University of Constantinople , founded as an institution of higher learning in 425, educated graduates to take on posts of authority in the imperial service or within the Church. It was reorganized as a corporation of students in 849 by

533-632: The Ptolemaic dynasty , the Serapeum , Mouseion , and Library of Alexandria served as organizations of higher learning in Alexandria . In Cairo , Al-Azhar , which was established in 970 CE, served as an organization of higher learning. In Fez , Fatima al-Fihri established a madraza in 859 CE, which eventually became the organization of higher learning, the currently named University of al-Qarawiyyin . The Ez-Zitouna University , which

574-491: The Tunisian revolution and in response to a court petition by a group of Tunisian citizens, the mosque's former educational offices were reopened and it was declared as an independent educational institution once again. The present-day institution has some 1200 students and 90 faculty, divided between two associated institutes — the Higher Institute of Theology and the Higher Institute of Islamic Civilisation in Tunis — and

615-502: The Western -style university , an autonomous organization of scholars that originated in medieval Europe and has been adopted in other regions in modern times (see list of oldest universities in continuous operation ). Ancient Egyptians established an organization of higher learning – the Per - ankh , which means the "House of Life" – in 2000 BCE. In the third century BCE, amid

656-536: The physical sciences , and music . Ancient higher-learning institutions A variety of ancient higher-learning institutions were developed in many cultures to provide institutional frameworks for scholarly activities. These ancient centres were sponsored and overseen by courts; by religious institutions, which sponsored cathedral schools , monastic schools , and madrasas ; by scientific institutions, such as museums, hospitals, and observatories; and by respective scholars. They are to be distinguished from

697-516: The 14th century. During this time there were most likely courses being offered voluntarily by ulama (Islamic legal scholars), but not in an organized manner. For centuries, Kairouan was the early centre of learning and intellectual pursuits in Tunisia and North Africa in general. Starting from the 13th century, Tunis became the capital of Ifriqiya under Almohad and Hafsid rule. This shift in power helped al-Zaytuna to flourish and become one of

738-613: The Mahavihara's history remains unknown. Of the three Mahavihara campuses, Lalitgiri in the district of Cuttack is the oldest. Iconographic analysis indicates that Lalitgiri had already been established during the Shunga period of the second century BCE, making it one of the oldest Buddhist establishments in the world. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), who visited it in 639 CE, as Puphagiri Mahavihara , as well as in medieval Tibetan texts. However, unlike Takshila and Nalanda,

779-493: The Spanish occupied Tunis and broke into the Zaytuna Mosque in 1534. Administrative and curricular reforms to the institution were begun by Ahmad Bey in 1842. They continued in 1875 under Prime Minister Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi , who also expanded the al-Abdaliyah Library and opened it to the public. In 1896 new courses were introduced such as physics , political economy , and French , and in 1912 these reforms were extended to

820-626: The Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, reported an attack on a Buddhist monastery in which all the Buddhist monks were killed. This may have been Nalanda but others believe it was Odantapuri . In 2014 the modern Nalanda University was launched in nearby Rajgir . The school in Pushpagiri was established in the third century CE as present Odisha , India. As of 2007, the ruins of this Mahavihara had not yet been fully excavated. Consequently, much of

861-572: The ancient imperial academy known as Taixue was established by the Han dynasty . It was intermittently inherited by succeeding Chinese dynasties up until the Qing dynasty, in some of which the name was changed to Guozixue or Guozijian . Peking University (Imperial University of Peking) and Nanjing University are regarded as the replacement of Taixue. By 725 CE, Shuyuan or Academies of Classical Learning were private learning institutions established during

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902-745: The education of clergy . The earliest evidence of a European episcopal school is that established in Visigothic Spain at the Second Council of Toledo in 527. These early episcopal schools, with a focus on an apprenticeship in religious learning under a scholarly bishop, have been identified in Spain and in about twenty towns in Gaul during the sixth and seventh centuries. In addition to these episcopal schools, there were monastic schools which educated monks and nuns, as well as future bishops, at

943-604: The education system in 1958 and the creation of the University of Tunis in 1960 reduced the Zitouna's importance. The university's library was also integrated into the National Libraries of Tunis. The Zitouna University was succeeded by the Zitouna Faculty of Shari’a and Theology on March 1, 1961 which became one of the components of University of Tunis. In 1964–1965 its status as an independent university

984-550: The fourth century CE, amid the reign of Emperor Ella Amida , the Axumite imperial church served as an organization of higher learning. Major Buddhist monasteries ( mahaviharas ), notably those at Pushpagiri , Nalanda , Valabhi , and Taxila , included schools that were some of the primary institutions of higher learning in ancient India . The Salai in South India such as Kanthalloor Salai , Parthivapuram Salai served

1025-495: The major centres of Islamic learning. Ibn Khaldun , the first social historian in history, was one of its products. The flourishing university attracted students and men of learning from all parts of the known world at the time. Along with disciplines of theology – such as exegesis of the Qur'an ( tafsir ) – the university taught fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence ), Arabic grammar , history , science and medicine . It also had

1066-506: The medieval Chinese Tang dynasty . The Yuelu Academy (later become Hunan University ) founded in 976 CE, which is one of the four ancient famous Shuyuan (Academies) during the Song dynasty . In Japan , Daigakuryo was founded in 671 and Ashikaga Gakko was founded in the ninth century and restored in 1432. In Korea , Taehak was founded in 372 and Gukhak was established in 682. Seowons were private institutions established during

1107-586: The philosopher Plato , lasted until 86 BCE, when it was destroyed during Sulla's siege and sacking of Athens. Some 400 years later, during the fourth century CE, the Platonist philosopher Plutarch of Athens started a school which identified itself with Plato's Academy. That school lasted until 529, when it was closed following an edict from the Emperor Justinian prohibiting pagans from teaching. Around 335 BCE, Plato's successor Aristotle founded

1148-457: The regent Bardas of emperor Michael III , is considered by some to be the earliest institution of higher learning with some of the characteristics we associate today with a university (research and teaching, auto-administration, academic independence, et cetera). If a university is defined as "an institution of higher learning" then it is preceded by several others, including the Academy that it

1189-693: The ruins of Pushpagiri were not discovered until 1995, when a lecturer from a local college first stumbled upon the site. The task of excavating Pushpagiri's ruins, stretching over 58 hectares (143 acres) of land, was undertaken by the Odisha Institute of Maritime and South East Asian Studies between 1996 and 2006. It is now being carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions also mention about this learning center. Ancient Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient Gandhara , present-day Pakistan ,

1230-475: The same purpose. Nalanda was established in the fifth century CE in Bihar , India , and survived until circa 1200 CE. It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of war. Evidence in literature suggests that in 1193, Nalanda mahavihara was sacked by Bakhtiyar Khilji. The Persian historian Minhaj-i-Siraj, in his chronicle

1271-412: The university opposed French influence in Tunisian culture , even though younger people who studied there and who were unable to attend other universities lost the concept of the university having prestige. The students, faculty, and alumni became an integral part of the 1920s Destour party. Following Tunisia's Independence , the modern Zitouna University was established on April 26, 1956. Reforms to

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1312-612: The university's other branches in Kairouan, Sousse , Tozeur , and Gafsa . Until the 20th century the students were mostly recruited from Tunisia's wealth families but afterwards its recruitment broadened. Under French colonial rule it turned into a bastion of Arab and Islamic culture resisting French influence. Some prominent members of the Algerian nationalist movement studied here, such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Badis , Tawfiq Madani , and Houari Boumédiène . The traditional pedagogy of

1353-426: The university. The manuscripts covered almost all subjects and sciences, including grammar, logic , documentations , etiquette of research, cosmology , arithmetic , geometry , minerals , vocational training , etc. One of its famous libraries, al-Abdaliyah, included a large collection of rare manuscripts that attracted scholars from abroad. Much of the library's original collection was dispersed or destroyed when

1394-1265: Was Atisha Dipankara, a founder of the Sarma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. Subjects like philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, Indian logic etc. were taught here, but the most important branch of learning was tantrism . Further centres include Odantapuri , in Bihar (circa 550 – 1040), Telhara in Bihar (probably older than Nalanda ), Somapura Mahavihara and Jagaddala Mahavihara in Bengal , Kanchipuram , in Tamil Nadu , Manyakheta , in Karnataka , Nagarjunakonda , in Andhra Pradesh , Sharada Peeth , Somapura Mahavihara , in Bangladesh , Valabhi , in Gujarat , Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh , Vikramashila , in Bihar ( circa 800–1040), Mahavihara , Abhayagiri Vihāra , and Jetavanaramaya , in Sri Lanka . In China ,

1435-496: Was abolished by President Habib Bourguiba and it was relegated to being a theological college for the University of Tunis. For years afterward, under the rule of both Bourguiba and his successor Ben Ali , the educational institution was kept officially and physically distinct from the mosque itself. The Zitouna name was restored by Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in 1987, after having been changed under Bourguiba. In 2012, after

1476-444: Was an early Buddhist centre of learning. According to scattered references that were only fixed a millennium later, it may have dated back to at least the fifth century BCE. Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the sixth century BCE. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila

1517-518: Was established in 732 CE as Al-Zaytuna Mosque , served as an organization of higher learning. In the twelfth century CE, the University of Sankore , which began as the Mosque of Sankore, served as an organization of higher learning in Timbuktu . The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya , and the Mosque of Djinguereber constitute what is referred to as the University of Timbuktu . In

1558-478: Was established in the third century CE under the rule of Sassanid kings and continued its scholarly activities up to four centuries after Islam came to Iran. It was an important medical centre of the sixth and seventh centuries and a prominent example of higher education model in pre-Islam Iran. The Platonic Academy (sometimes referred to as the University of Athens), founded ca. 387 BCE in Athens , Greece , by

1599-621: Was founded to compete with and eventually replaced. If the original meaning of the word is considered "a corporation of students" then this could be the first example of such an institution. The Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School were the two major literary schools of the First Bulgarian Empire . In Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages , bishops sponsored cathedral schools and monasteries sponsored monastic schools , chiefly dedicated to

1640-567: Was in fact an attempt to thwart the growing influence of another group of Muslims, the Ismailis , in the region. Indeed, Nizam al-Mulk devoted a significant section in his famous Siyasatnama (Books of Politics) to refuting the Ismaili doctrines. The most famous and celebrated of all the nizamiyyah schools was Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad (established 1065), where Nizam al-Mulk appointed the distinguished philosopher and theologian, al-Ghazali , as

1681-598: Was one of the two most important centres of learning in India during the Pala Empire , along with Nalanda . Vikramashila was established by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nalanda. Atisha , the renowned pandita , is sometimes listed as a notable abbot . It was destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200. Vikramashila

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