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91-408: Nelumbo / n ɪ ˈ l ʌ m b oʊ / is a genus of aquatic plants with large, showy flowers . Members are commonly called lotus , though the name is also applied to various other plants and plant groups , including the unrelated genus Lotus . Members outwardly resemble those in the family Nymphaeaceae ("water lilies"), but Nelumbo is actually very distant from that family. Nelumbo

182-473: A sonicating bee (one that vibrates its wing muscles while perched on the flower), such as a bumblebee. Sonicating bees are extremely efficient pollinators of tomatoes, and colonies of bumblebees are quickly replacing humans as the primary pollinators for greenhouse tomatoes. Pollinators require a variety of resources. Most native bees in North America are solitary, ground-nesting species that collect

273-602: A comprehensive approach to tackling and reducing the impact of multiple stressors on pollinator health, including pests and pathogens, reduced habitat, lack of nutritional resources, and exposure to pesticides. The national strategy laid out federal actions to achieve three goals: Many of the priority projects that the national strategy identified focused on the I-35 corridor, which extends for 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Texas to Minnesota. The area through which that highway travels provides spring and summer breeding habitats in

364-442: A critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions. Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than

455-478: A distinct family and places it in the order Proteales in the eudicot clade , as do the earlier APG III and APG II systems . There are several fossil species known from Cretaceous , Paleogene and Neogene aged strata throughout Eurasia and North America . Despite the ancient origins of this genus and the wide geographic separation of the two extant species ( N. nucifera and N. lutea ), phylogenetic evidence indicates that they diverged rather recently, during

546-502: A fetid odor . The plants' ecological strategy varies; several species of Stapelia , for example, attract carrion flies that futilely lay their eggs on the flower, where their larvae promptly starve for lack of carrion . Other species do decay rapidly after ripening, and offer the visiting insects large masses of food, as well as pollen and sometimes seed to carry off when they leave. Hoverflies are important pollinators of flowering plants worldwide. Often hoverflies are considered to be

637-553: A key ecosystem service vital to the maintenance of both wild and agricultural plant communities. In 1999 the Convention on Biological Diversity issued the São Paulo Declaration on Pollinators, recognizing the critical role that these species play in supporting and maintaining terrestrial productivity as well as the survival challenges they face due to anthropogenic change. Today pollinators are considered to be in

728-651: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

819-628: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

910-549: A mud chamber prior to oviposition. Also, males of many species of bees and wasps, though they do not gather pollen, rely on flowers as sources of energy (in the form of nectar) and also as territories for meeting fertile females that visit the flowers. Some Diptera (flies) may be the main pollinators at higher elevations of mountains, whereas bumblebee species are typically the only other pollinators in alpine regions at timberline and beyond. Some adult mosquitoes , if they feed on nectar, may act as pollinators; Aedes communis ,

1001-401: A network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of the interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species. The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for

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1092-408: A particular hawk moth , Morgan's sphinx . Yucca species provide other examples, being fertilised in elaborate ecological interactions with particular species of yucca moths . Many bee flies , and some Tabanidae and Nemestrinidae are particularly adapted to pollinating fynbos and Karoo plants with narrow, deep corolla tubes , such as Lapeirousia species. Part of the adaptation takes

1183-893: A preliminary project in Chile, the program has expanded to Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica. The ‘Coalition of the Willing on Pollinators' (Promote Pollinators) was initiated in 2016 during the Convention on Biological Diversity's Conference of the Parties (CBD COP13) and is a growing alliance of countries and observers who support the notion that country-led politics can lead to policy measures and innovative action to protect pollinators'. Their supporters are growing steadily, in which 30 countries currently participate. Wild pollinators often visit many plant species and plants are visited by many pollinator species. All these relations together form

1274-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1365-710: A species found in North America, is known to pollinate Platanthera obtusata , commonly referred as the blunt-leaved orchid. Beetles of species that specialise in eating pollen, nectar, or flowers themselves, may be important cross-pollinators of some plants such as members of the Araceae and Zamiaceae , that produce prodigious amounts of pollen. Others, for example the Hopliini , specialise on flowers of Asteraceae and Aizoaceae . Minute midges and flower- thrips can occur in vast numbers, moving between flowers and plant individuals, enabling some species to contribute to

1456-575: A state of decline; some species, such as Franklin's bumble bee ( Bombus franklini ) have been red-listed and are in danger of extinction. Although managed bee hives are increasing worldwide, these can not compensate for the loss of wild pollinators in many locations. A 2017 report done for the Center of Biological Diversity utilized data documented in the United States on native bee species and found that nearly 1 in 4 (347 species of 1,437 species)

1547-433: A strain genetically pure. This can involve using a small brush or cotton swab to move pollen, or to simply tap or shake tomato blossoms to release the pollen for the self-pollinating flowers. Tomato blossoms are self-fertile, but (with the exception of potato-leaf varieties) have the pollen inside the anther , and the flower requires shaking to release the pollen through pores . This can be done by wind, by humans, or by

1638-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

1729-563: A terrestrial to an aquatic lifestyle. In the older classification systems it was recognized under the order Nymphaeales or Nelumbonales. Nelumbo is currently recognized as the only living genus in Nelumbonaceae, one of several distinctive families in the eudicot order of the Proteales . Its closest living relatives, the ( Proteaceae and Platanaceae ), are shrubs or trees. The APG IV system of 2016 recognizes Nelumbonaceae as

1820-419: A threat to the economic stability of commercial beekeeping and pollination operations in the United States, which could have profound implications for agriculture and food. Severe yearly declines create concern that bee colony losses could reach a point from which the commercial pollination industry would not be able to adequately recover. The loss of native bees, which also play a key role in pollination of crops,

1911-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

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2002-711: A variety of natural resources including pollen, nectar, leaves, petals and resins to be used as sources of food, supplies for their larva, or nest linings. Floral diet diversity has been seen to increase immunocompetence levels in honeybees (Apis mellifera) where diets that consisted of a wide variety of flowering species induced higher glucose oxidase activity, which honeybees' produce to sterilize their colony. More than 30% of global bee species depend on non-floral resources for nest building, protection, health, pest resistance, and alternative food sources. Non-floral resources include leaves, soil, plant resins and secretions, and are often provided by woody-vegetation. Pollinators provide

2093-455: Is native to North America and the Caribbean . Horticultural hybrids have been produced between these two allopatric species . The leaves of Nelumbo are highly water-repellent (i.e. they exhibit ultrahydrophobicity ) and have given the name to what is called the lotus effect . Ultrahydrophobicity involves two criteria: a very high water contact angle between the droplet of water and

2184-618: Is a collaboration between the Bayer Bee Care Center and the Fraunhofer Chile Research Foundation, that works alongside local researchers at universities and beekeepers' associations. The program focuses on increasing the number of healthy worker bees and their colonies by monitoring honey bee health and the contributing factors. This includes educating beekeepers and research collaborations to jointly work on honey bee health. Founded in 2015 with

2275-456: Is a different electron acceptor than the usual cytochrome complexes. The plant also reduces ubiquitin concentrations while in thermogenesis , which allows the AOX in the plant to function without degradation. Thermogenesis is restricted to the receptacle , stamen , and petals of the flower, but each of these parts produce heat independently without relying on the heat production in other parts of

2366-489: Is an ancient genus, with dozens of species known from fossil remains since the Early Cretaceous . However, there are only two known living species of lotus. One is the better-known Nelumbo nucifera , which is native to East Asia , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and probably Australia and is commonly cultivated for consumption and use in traditional Chinese medicine . The other lotus is Nelumbo lutea , which

2457-565: Is developing strategic plans for conservation that looks to establish partnership between government entities. 11 pollinator-protection agreements have been signed between NAPCC and federal government agencies, responsible for more than 1.5 billion acres of land protections and management. Along with the European Green Deal , which contains initiatives that support pollinator populations, the European Union has implemented

2548-612: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

2639-532: Is high protein food, to nurture their young, and transfer some among the flowers as they are working. Euglossine bees pollinate orchids, but these are male bees collecting floral scents rather than females gathering nectar or pollen. Female orchid bees act as pollinators, but of flowers other than orchids. Eusocial bees such as honey bees need an abundant and steady pollen source to multiply. Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar (later converted to honey ), and pollen grains. The bee collects

2730-702: Is imperiled and at increasing risk of extinction. More than half of the native bee species is in decline and 40% of global insect pollinators (primarily native bees) are highly threatened. Declines in the health and population of pollinators pose what could be a significant threat to the integrity of biodiversity, to global food webs, and to human health. At least 80% of our world's crop species require pollination to set seed. A 2021 study estimated that without pollinators, fertility would be reduced by 80% in half all wild plant species and one-third of all wild plant species would fail to produce any seeds at all. An estimated one out of every three bites of food comes to us through

2821-596: Is much less studied, but many native bee species are believed to be in decline. Scientists believe that bee losses are likely caused by a combination of stressors, including poor bee nutrition, loss of forage lands, parasites, pathogens, lack of genetic diversity, and exposure to pesticides. In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The national strategy outlined

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2912-409: Is recognizable in the dark by thermo-sensitive pollinators. None have been conclusively proven to be more plausible than the others. After anthesis , the receptacle of the lotus transitions from a primarily thermogenic to a photosynthetic structure, as seen in the rapid and dramatic increase in photosystems , photosynthetically involved pigments, electron transport rates, and the presence of 13 in

3003-546: Is sacred in both Hinduism and Buddhism . It is the floral emblem of both India and Vietnam . Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of

3094-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

3185-798: Is that of sexual deception, where plants, generally orchids, produce remarkably complex combinations of pheromonal attractants and physical mimicry that induce male bees or wasps to attempt to mate with them, conveying pollinia in the process. Examples are known from all continents apart from Antarctica , though Australia appears to be exceptionally rich in examples. Whole groups of plants, such as certain fynbos Moraea and Erica species produce flowers on sticky peduncles or with sticky corolla tubes that only permit access to flying pollinators, whether bird, bat, or insect. Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small crustaceans ) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of seagrass have been shown to reproduce this way in

3276-423: Is the eastern skunk cabbage , which heats itself to melt any ice above it, and push through the ground in early spring. Also, the elephant yam , which heats its flowers to attract pollinators. In addition, the carrion flower , which heats itself to disperse water vapor through the air, carrying its scent further, thus attracting more pollinators. The leaves of Nelumbo can be distinguished from those of genera in

3367-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

3458-613: The Environmental Protection Agency to ban neonicotinoids , a type of insecticide. On June 20, 2014, President Barack Obama issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The President's memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Administrator of

3549-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

3640-824: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

3731-448: The innate yellow colour preference of syrphids. Some male dacine fruit flies are exclusive pollinators of some wild Bulbophyllum orchids that lack nectar and have a specific chemical attractant and reward (methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone or zingerone) present in their floral fragrances. Many insects other than bees accomplish pollination by visiting flowers for nectar or pollen, or commonly both. Many do so adventitiously, but

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3822-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

3913-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

4004-753: The Americas and Australia historically has been performed by various native bees. It has also been found that non-native plants may have positive effects on native bee pollinators while also influencing their foraging patterns and bee–plant networks. Lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) may also pollinate to various degrees. They are not major pollinators of food crops , but various moths are important pollinators of other commercial crops such as tobacco . Pollination by certain moths may be important, however, or even crucial, for some wildflowers mutually adapted to specialist pollinators. Spectacular examples include orchids such as Angraecum sesquipedale , dependent on

4095-702: The EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 which includes the EU Pollinators Initiative that sets long-term objectives to reverse pollinator decline in diversity and numbers by 2030. This initiative includes: (1) improving knowledge of pollinator decline, its causes and consequences; (2) tackling the causes of pollinator decline; and (3) raising awareness, engaging society-at-large and promoting collaboration. The Healthy Hives Latin America 2020 (Salud Apícola 2020 Latinoamérica) program

4186-555: The Environmental Protection Agency . The memorandum stated: Pollinators contribute substantially to the economy of the United States and are vital to keeping fruits, nuts, and vegetables in our diets. Honey bee pollination alone adds more than $ 15 billion in value to agricultural crops each year in the United States. Over the past few decades, there has been a significant loss of pollinators, including honey bees, native bees, birds, bats, and butterflies, from

4277-613: The Task Force issued a "Pollinator Partnership Action Plan". That Plan provided examples of past, ongoing, and possible future collaborations between the federal government and non-federal institutions to support pollinator health under each of the national strategy's goals. The North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPC) aims to promote pollinator health across the North America and has organized annual conferences since 1997, creates task forces to implement specific objectives that includes public education and policy research, and

4368-442: The United States' key monarch migration corridor. The Pollinator Health Task Force simultaneously issued a "Pollinator Research Action Plan". The Plan outlined five main action areas, covered in ten subject-specific chapters. The action areas were: (1) Setting a Baseline; (2) Assessing Environmental Stressors; (3) Restoring Habitat; (4) Understanding and Supporting Stakeholders; (5) Curating and Sharing Knowledge. In June 2016,

4459-805: The absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species. Later, Idotea balthica was discovered to help Gracilaria gracilis reproduce – the first known case of an animal helping algae reproduce. Bats are important pollinators of some tropical flowers, visiting to take nectar. Birds, particularly hummingbirds , honeyeaters and sunbirds also accomplish much pollination, especially of deep-throated flowers. Other vertebrates , such as kinkajous , monkeys , lemurs , possums , rodents and lizards have been recorded pollinating some plants. Humans can be pollinators, as many gardeners have discovered that they must hand pollinate garden vegetables , whether because of pollinator decline or simply to keep

4550-413: The area of contact between the water droplet and the leaf. Ultrahydrophobicity is said to confer a very important evolutionary advantage. As an aquatic plant with leaves that rest on the water's surface, the genus Nelumbo is characterized by its concentration of stomata on the upper epidermis of its leaves, unlike most other plants which concentrate their stomata on the lower epidermis , underneath

4641-612: The authors. Neonicotinoids (Neonics) are a class of synthetic insecticides that are the most widely applied pesticides today due to its water solubility and ability to treat a wide variety of pests. Neonics are highly environmentally persistent, and may contaminate terrestrial and aquatic habitats for as much as six years. Exposed honeybees' (Apis mellifera) have been seen to have lower reproductive output, reduction in nest building or failed to build nests, reduced foraging abilities, and weakened immunity. Researchers are still trying to determine how to scientifically best restore and maintain

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4732-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

4823-774: The depth and width of the corolla, the color (including patterns called nectar guides that are visible only in ultraviolet light), the scent , amount of nectar, composition of nectar, etc. For example, birds visit red flowers with long, narrow tubes and much nectar, but are not as strongly attracted to wide flowers with little nectar and copious pollen, which are more attractive to beetles. When these characteristics are experimentally modified (altering colour, size, orientation), pollinator visitation may decline. Although non-bee pollinators have been seen to be less effective at depositing pollen than bee pollinators one study showed that non-bees made more visits than bees resulting in non-bees performing 38% of visits to crop flowers, outweighing

4914-705: The diverse pollinator habitats found around the world. Many studies conclude that restoration and conservation are key to maintaining biodiversity and pollinator populations. According to the Kansas National Park Service, native tallgrass prairie was widespread through North America and home to over 300 species of flowering plants. This habitat is crucial to wild pollinators and now only covers 4% of its original 170-million acre range. By restoring wild pollinators natural habitat and maintaining Earth's biodiversity, populations are assumed to increase. In recent times, environmental groups have put pressure on

5005-581: The early Pleistocene (about 2 million years ago). Nearly 30 fossil species are known from the mid-Cretaceous to the present. The genus name is derived from Sinhala : නෙළුම් neḷum , the name for Nelumbo nucifera . The entire plant can be eaten either raw or cooked. The underwater portion is high in starch . The fleshy parts can be dug from the mud and baked or boiled. The young leaves can be boiled. The seeds are palatable and can be eaten raw or dried and ground into flour. The stem fibers are also used to make lotus silk . The sacred lotus, N. nucifera ,

5096-489: The environment. The problem is serious and requires immediate attention to ensure the sustainability of our food production systems, avoid additional economic impact on the agricultural sector, and protect the health of the environment. Pollinator losses have been severe. The number of migrating Monarch butterflies sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013-14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration. The continued loss of commercial honey bee colonies poses

5187-449: The family Nymphaeaceae as they are peltate , that is they have fully circular leaves. Nymphaea , on the other hand, has a single characteristic notch from the edge in to the center of the lily pad. The seedpod of Nelumbo is very distinctive. The Cronquist system of 1981 recognizes the family Nelumbonaceae but places it in the water lily order Nymphaeales . The Dahlgren system of 1985 and Thorne system of 1992 both recognize

5278-508: The family and place it in its own order, Nelumbonales. The United States Department of Agriculture still classifies the lotus family within the water lily order. There is residual disagreement over which family the genus should be placed in. Traditional classification systems recognized Nelumbo as part of the Nymphaeaceae, but traditional taxonomists were likely misled by convergent evolution associated with an evolutionary shift from

5369-400: The flower. There are several theories about the function of thermogenesis, especially in an aquatic genus such as Nelumbo . The most common theory posits that thermogenesis in flowers attracts pollinators , for a variety of reasons. Heated flowers may attract insect pollinators. As the pollinators warm themselves while resting inside the flower, they deposit and pick up pollen onto and from

5460-403: The flower. The thermogenic environment might also be conducive to pollinator mating ; pollinators may require a certain temperature for reproduction. By providing an ideal thermogenic environment, the flower is pollinated by mating pollinators. Others theorize that heat production facilitates the release of volatile compounds into the air to attract pollinators flying over water, or that the heat

5551-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

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5642-425: The form of a structure known as the scopa , which is on the hind legs of most bees, and/or the lower abdomen (e.g., of megachilid bees), made up of thick, plumose setae . Honey bees , bumblebees , and their relatives do not have a scopa, but the hind leg is modified into a structure called the corbicula (also known as the " pollen basket "). Most bees gather nectar , a concentrated energy source, and pollen, which

5733-405: The form of remarkably long probosces. This also applies to empidine dance flies ( Empidinae ) that visit a wide range of flowering plants, some species of which can pollinate the woodland geranium ( Geranium sylvaticum L. ) as effectively as bees . Carrion flies and flesh flies in families such as Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae are important for some species of plants whose flowers exude

5824-737: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

5915-555: The genus Nelumbo is that it can generate heat , which it does by using the alternative oxidase pathway (AOX). This pathway involves a different, alternative exchange of electrons from the usual pathway that electrons follow when generating energy in mitochondria , known as the AOX, or alternative oxidase pathway. The typical pathway in plant mitochondria involves cytochrome complexes. The pathway used to generate heat in Nelumbo involves cyanide -resistant alternative oxidase, which

6006-603: The ineffectiveness of their ability to pollinate. It has recently been discovered that cycads , which are not flowering plants , are also pollinated by insects. In 2016, researchers showed evidence of pollination occurring underwater, which was previously thought not to happen. The most recognized pollinators are the various species of bees , which are plainly adapted to pollination. Bees typically are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge. Both features help pollen grains adhere to their bodies, but they also have specialized pollen-carrying structures; in most bees, this takes

6097-633: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

6188-448: The leaf surface, and a very low roll-off angle. This means that the water must contact the leaf surface at exactly one, minuscule point, and any manipulation of the leaf by changing its angle will result in the water droplet rolling off of the leaf. Ultrahydrophobicity is conferred by the usually dense layer of papillae on the surface of the Nelumbo leaves, and the small, robust, waxy tubules that protrude off each papilla. This helps reduce

6279-533: The leaf. The collection of water on the upper epidermis, whether that be by rain, mist, or the nearby disturbance of water, is very detrimental to the leaf's ability to perform gas exchange through its stomata. Thus, Nelumbo's ultrahydrophobicity allows the water droplets to accumulate together very quickly, and then roll off of the leaf very easily at the slightest disturbance of the leaf, a process which allows its stomata to function normally without restriction due to blockage by water droplets. An uncommon property of

6370-411: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Pollinator A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from

6461-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

6552-479: The most important commercial pollinating agents, but many other kinds of pollinators, from blue bottle flies, to bumblebees, orchard mason bees , and leaf cutter bees are cultured and sold for managed pollination . Other species of bees differ in various details of their behavior and pollen-gathering habits, and honey bees are not native to the Western Hemisphere ; all pollination of native plants in

6643-640: The most important pollinators are specialists for at least parts of their life cycles for at least certain functions. Prominent among Hymenoptera other than bees are predatory aculeate wasps (especially Crabronidae , Sphecidae , Vespidae , and Pompilidae ). The term " pollen wasps ", in particular, is widely applied to the Masarinae, a subfamily of the Vespidae; they are remarkable among solitary wasps in that they specialise in gathering pollen for feeding their larvae, carried internally and regurgitated into

6734-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

6825-527: The nutritional needs of the brood. Good pollination management seeks to have bees in a "building" state during the bloom period of the crop, thus requiring them to gather pollen, and making them more efficient pollinators. Thus, the management techniques of a beekeeper providing pollination services are different from, and to some extent in tension with, those of a beekeeper who is trying to produce honey. Millions of hives of honey bees are contracted out as pollinators by beekeepers , and honey bees are by far

6916-453: The pollen by rubbing against the anthers. The pollen collects on the hind legs, in a structure referred to as a "pollen basket". As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers. Nectar provides the energy for bee nutrition ; pollen provides the protein . When bees are rearing large quantities of brood (beekeepers say hives are "building"), bees deliberately gather pollen to meet

7007-445: The pollen grains. Insects are the major pollinators of most plants, and insect pollinators include all families of bees and most families of aculeate wasps ; ants ; many families of flies ; many lepidopterans (both butterflies and moths ); and many families of beetles . Vertebrates, mainly bats and birds, but also some non-bat mammals ( monkeys , lemurs , possums , rodents ) and some lizards pollinate certain plants. Among

7098-456: The pollinating birds are hummingbirds , honeyeaters and sunbirds with long beaks; they pollinate a number of deep-throated flowers. Humans may also carry out artificial pollination . A pollinator is different from a pollenizer , a plant that is a source of pollen for the pollination process. Plants fall into pollination syndromes that reflect the type of pollinator being attracted. These are characteristics such as: overall flower size,

7189-487: The pollination of tree-crops such as cacao, Theobroma cacao L. (Malvaceae) and elderflower Sambucus nigra L. (Adoxaceae). Ants also pollinate some kinds of flowers, but for the most part they are parasites, consuming nectar and/or pollen without conveying useful amounts of pollen to a stigma. Other insect orders are rarely pollinators, and then typically only incidentally (e.g., Hemiptera such as Anthocoridae and Miridae ). A strategy of great biological interest

7280-541: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

7371-447: The receptacle and petals, all of which assist in increasing photosynthesis rates. After this transition, all thermogenesis in the flower is lost. Pollinators do not need to be attracted once the ovary is fertilized, and thus the receptacle's resources are better used when it is photosynthesizing to produce carbohydrates that can increase plant biomass or fruit mass. Other plants utilize thermoregulation in their life cycles. Among these

7462-470: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or

7553-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in

7644-421: The second most important pollinators after wild bees. Although hoverflies as a whole are generally considered to be nonselective pollinators, some species have more specialized relationships. The orchid species Epipactis veratrifolia mimics alarm pheromones of aphids to attract hover flies for pollination. Another plant, the slipper orchid in southwest China, also achieves pollination by deceit by exploiting

7735-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

7826-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

7917-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

8008-576: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

8099-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

8190-581: The way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh. This allows pollinator species to survive together under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass

8281-514: The work of animal pollinators. The quality of pollinator service has declined over time and this had led to concerns that pollination will be less resistant to extinction in the future. A 2022 study concludes that the decline of pollinator populations is responsible for 500,000 early human deaths per year by reducing the supply of healthy foods. A decline of pollinators has caused 3-5% loss of fruits, vegetables and nuts. Lower consumption of these healthy foods translates to 1% of all deaths, according to

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