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63-530: Ni-Vanuatu (informally abbreviated Ni-Van ) is a large group of closely related Melanesian ethnic groups native to the island country of Vanuatu . As such, ni-Vanuatu are a mixed ethnolinguistic group with a shared ethnogenesis that speak a multitude of languages. The ni-Vanuatu or ni-Van is usually restricted to the indigenous population of Vanuatu. It contrasts with the demonym Vanuatuan , which in principle refers to any citizen of Vanuatu, regardless of their origin or ethnicity. (The form Vanuatuan

126-513: A "Vanuatu citizen (especially someone of Melanesian descent rather than a naturalised expatriate)". The term is mostly used in English and French, and is rarely used in Bislama , the country's lingua franca . The term is never used in the indigenous languages of the archipelago . The form ni-Van is a colloquial abbreviation of ni-Vanuatu . This form was pejorative in its original usage in

189-426: A V-shaped notch on one end and one to three holes on the other. These instruments would be blown on one end and played with their arms extended to their waist. Hollowed cylinders were also hung from tree branches and the audible sounds created by the wind would be interpreted as ancestral voices. Dried seeds were tied to wrists and ankles by dried coconut fibres to act as rattles and coconut shells would be banged against

252-438: A bamboo cylinder and continuously coiled until a circular sheet of clay was added to make the base of the pot. The bamboo base was removed resulting in the conical shape of these pots. The second technique used a ball of clay that was hollowed out and molded onto the knee, which created the bowl shape. These pots were then dried out and fired. The hearth was prepared by hot stones and dried coconut fronds and bamboo were used to fuel

315-423: A form of communication. Indigenous ni-Vanuatu communities describe their traditional values and beliefs using the modern (Bislama) term kastom . Kastom was expressed through religion, clothing, native arts, indigenous culture and languages. The development of kastom was a symbol of traditional native values compared to foreign Eurocentric concepts and ideals. It represents the unity and national identity of

378-403: A large role in the rituals of indigenous ni-Vanuatu. Dances coordinated with counter-clockwise directions of circling dances represent the notions of male "hardness" during ceremonies, and clockwise directions were only accepted at a certain age for males. Musical instruments were created with organic materials such as wood, bones, leafs, rocks, vegetables, and fruits. Bamboo flutes were carved with

441-548: A majority Melanesian population, but the proportion has dropped to 43% in the face of modern immigration. The largest and most populous Melanesian country is Papua New Guinea . The largest city in Melanesia is Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea with about 318,000 people, mostly of Melanesian ancestry. The western half of New Guinea is part of Indonesia and is predominantly inhabited by indigenous Papuans , with

504-416: A significant minority of settlers from other parts of Indonesia. In Australia , the total population of Torres Strait Islanders , a Melanesian people, as of 30 June 2016 , was about 38,700 identifying as being of Torres Strait Islander origin only, and 32,200 of both Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander origin (a total of 70,900). Vanuatu Cultural Centre From 1995 to 2006,

567-440: A special song. The layers of bark would alternately be soaked, beaten, and dried until it was deemed ready. Generally ni-Vanuatu women would create barkcloth for the community. Penis sleeves worn by men are called yelau and they would hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status. In certain cases, some chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles. Musical instruments and traditional dances play

630-534: A very modest degree with the indigenous populations there". Nevertheless, the study still found a small Austronesian genetic signature (below 20%) in less than half of the Melanesian groups who speak Austronesian languages , and which was entirely absent in the Papuan -speaking groups. The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living within the Melanesian islands, with

693-596: A wide variety of Pacific peoples. It found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians. Both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians , particularly Taiwanese aborigines . It appeared that, having developed their sailing outrigger canoes, the ancestors of the Polynesians migrated from East Asia, moved through the Melanesian area quickly on their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled. They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia, "and only intermixed to

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756-963: Is generally associated with the first settlement of Australasia by a lineage dubbed 'Australasians' or 'Australo-Papuans' during the Initial Upper Paleolithic , which is "ascribed to a population movement with uniform genetic features and material culture" ( Ancient East Eurasians ), and sharing deep ancestry with modern East Asian peoples and other Asia-Pacific groups. It is estimated that people reached Sahul (the geological continent consisting of Australia and New Guinea) between 50,000 and 37,000 years ago. Rising sea levels separated New Guinea from Australia about 10,000 years ago. However, Aboriginal Australians and Papuans had diverged genetically much earlier, around 40,000 years BP. Melanesians are more closely related to Papuans than to Aboriginal Australians. The eastern part of Melanesia that includes Vanuatu , New Caledonia , and Fiji ,

819-475: Is going to win out". The rational of many feared the unknown of which ruling government would take over the nation. Tertiary education was often presented with a bias from the French government, based on the fears of higher education presenting ideas of anti-colonialism to the general population. English-medium to French-medium university scholars reflected this concept with a ratio of 120:1 in 1983, three years after

882-626: Is in fact rarely used in English, and is regarded as incorrect by some authors and style guides .) Due to the history of British and French colonialism , indigenous people of Vanuatu generally speak English and French, as well as Bislama . The cultural aspects of ni-Vanuatu society have been instilled on the indigenous community and are expressed through clothing, rituals, ceremonies, music, performing and fine arts, and cuisine. The spiritual ties ni-Vanuatu have with their land and ancestors are conveyed through these traditions and some of these remaining artefacts have been preserved and displayed in

945-666: Is not the same gene that causes blond hair in the Northern European region. As with blond hair that arose in Northern Europe, incidence of blondness is more common in children than in adults, with hair tending to darken as the individual matures. The predominantly Melanesian areas of Oceania include New Guinea and surrounding islands, the Solomon Islands , Vanuatu and Fiji . New Caledonia and nearby Loyalty Islands for most of their history have had

1008-405: Is preferred on most occasions, the respect for kastom in island dresses are incorporated into special events such as festivals, ceremonies, and church gatherings. Pandanus grass skirts are worn by women while penis wrappers and bark belts are worn by men. Barkcloths are also a staple of ni-Vanuatu clothing and sleeping mats. Different styles and variations of draping the barkcloths indicated

1071-633: Is restricted, being tabu . Some material may be accessed only by men, some only by women, and some only by members of particular indigenous cultural groups. In 2002 the German painter Ingo Kühl , after participating in an expedition of the Vanuatu Cultural Center to ceremonies of the indigenous people on Malakula , his works that were created there were shown in an exhibition at the National Museum of Vanuatu and in 2004–2005 at

1134-800: Is the Oral Traditions Collection Project, started in 1976, which has been described as "without doubt, the Pacific's most successful grassroots cultural documentation program". The Centre produces radio programmes and videos aimed at cultural promotion, preservation or revival. As of 1996, the centre's collection contained "approximately 2500 hours of audio tape, 2300 hours of video tape, twenty-three hours of 16-millimetre film footage, thirty hours of 8-millimetre film footage, 3000 early (up to 1950s) black-and-white photographs, and around 4000 colour slides, colour negatives and black-and-white negatives". Access to some of this material

1197-462: Is the country with the world's highest language density per capita , with 138 languages for a population of 0.3 million. These 138 indigenous languages are still used today by two-thirds of the country's population, mainly in rural areas. These are Oceanic languages , descended historically from the country's first Austronesian settlers. Despite the first European contact in Vanuatu in 1606, English

1260-535: The galleries of Vanuatu. Ni-Vanuatu is a recent coinage. It combines the name of the country ( Vanuatu , etymologically "land that stands [by itself]", i.e. ‘independent country’) with a particle ni , which encodes the genitive in indigenous languages such as North Efate similar to "of" in English. Etymologically, the particle descends from Proto-Oceanic , Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Austronesian *ni . The word ni-Vanuatu thus simply means "of Vanuatu". The Bislama dictionary defines ni-Vanuatu as

1323-688: The indigenous Australians . Dumont D'Urville combined the two peoples into one group. Soares et al. (2008) have argued for an older pre- Holocene Sundaland origin in Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) based on mitochondrial DNA . The "out of Taiwan model" was challenged by a study from Leeds University and published in Molecular Biology and Evolution . Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving in ISEA for longer than previously believed. Ancestors of

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1386-673: The 1980s by Anglophone European expatriates, similar to its French equivalent les nis , but according to New Zealand linguist Terry Crowley , by the 2000s the term ni-Van saw increasing usage among ni-Vanuatu. The first inhabitants of Vanuatu were Austronesian people, carriers of the Lapita culture , who settled the archipelago about 1200-1300BC. They were later followed by Melanesians around 500BC. Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós visited Vanuatu in 1606. However, settlement did not occur until Captain James Cook charted

1449-499: The British government required education fees from parents. The competition between the two ruling governments caused a division in the education system, as ni-Vanuatu based their decisions on financial and political reasons. The French system was popular to Melanesians, but the British system was still an option to many. Ni-Vanuatu parents would say " Yumi no save yet se wanem saed bae i win", translating to "We don't know yet which side

1512-605: The Denisovans, indicating this exchange. The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals. Both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on genetic evidence from a fossil found in Siberia . The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into southeast Asia, where ancestors of

1575-565: The Melanesian islands. Genetic links have been identified between the Oceanic peoples. Polynesians are dominated by a type of macro-haplogroup C y-DNA, which is a minority lineage in Melanesia, and have a very low frequency of the dominant Melanesian y-DNA K2b1. A significant minority of them also belongs to the typical East Asian male Haplogroup O-M175 . Some recent studies suggest that all humans outside of Sub-Saharan Africa have inherited some genes from Neanderthals, and that Melanesians are

1638-613: The Melanesians developed. Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair. The blond trait developed via the TYRP1 gene, which is not the same gene that causes blondness in European blonds. Early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. In 1756 Charles de Brosses theorized that there

1701-576: The New Hebrides gained independence as the Republic of Vanuatu. During the Condominium period, European regulations sometimes resulted in land disputes, particularly around plantations. Upon independence, the new constitution determined that land ownership would belong to native ni-Vanuatus: the land rights were given to the traditional owners and community to make decisions. Workers on

1764-882: The Polynesians arrived in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea at least 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. (2000) also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. A follow-up study by Kayser et al. (2008) discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin, with the rest (79%) being of East Asian origin. A study by Friedlaender et al. (2008) confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, and East Asians, than to Melanesians. The study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus,

1827-596: The VKS was run by Ralph Regenvanu . From 2007 until his termination in November 2014, Abong Marcelin was director. Ambong Thompson is currently acting Director. Describing itself as "an organisation that works to record and promote the diverse cultures" of Vanuatu, the Vanuatu Cultural Centre fulfills the role a national body for the preservation, the protection and the promotion of the different aspects of

1890-430: The Vanuatu's parliament promotes women participating in politics; however, she predicts that it would take time to convince to public to do so. In October 2020, a "Vote for Women" campaign was coordinated to encourage and support women in the political scene. The municipal council reserves seats for women to represent the community and are encouraged to participate with government training programs readily available. 75% of

1953-410: The area more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples. It was proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language ) departed to

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2016-582: The coastlines were more intermixed. Further DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more Homo erectus races or subspecies have been discovered since the late 20th century. Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova hominin , an ancient human species discovered in 2010, Svante Pääbo claims that ancient human ancestors of the Melanesians interbred in Asia with these humans . He has found that people of New Guinea share 4%–7% of their genome with

2079-435: The copra plantations were generally Melanesian. Melanesian workers were occupied with their own plantations leading to European owners sourcing labour from foreign countries such as French Indochina for general agricultural labour and construction. After World War II, American soldiers introduced Western items such as camp supplies, construction aviation, electricity, and running water. Introducing overseas workers combined with

2142-400: The culture of the archipelago. The Vanuatu Cultural Centre is an umbrella organization which includes : Its aim is to record and promote the traditional indigenous cultures of Vanuatu in their various aspects - from sand drawing to music, land diving , other "customary practices" and "indigenous knowledge"-, but also the country's "contemporary arts and music". Among its projects

2205-480: The different status of the individual. Men would wear the barkcloth around their waist or drape it between their thighs and women would wear it around their waist and drape it behind their back—leading to European stories of "tailed women". These barkcloths were made from young tree bark, as it didn't break so easily, and would generally take three to four days to make. The sheets of bark would be soaked with water and women would beat layers of barks together whilst singing

2268-471: The east to become the forebears of the Polynesian people . The indigenous Melanesian populations are thus often classified into two main groups based on differences in language, culture or genetic ancestry: the Papuan -speaking and Austronesian -speaking groups. This Polynesian theory was overturned by a 2010 study, which was based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among

2331-736: The fire. Contemporary arts have been criticised due to the non-indigenous forms of using western media such as watercolour and acrylic paint to portray the kastoms of the ni-Vanuatu. However, contemporary Ni-Vanuatu artists have argued that representations of their cultural ties to Vanuatu are being represented in their artistic forms. Foundation Suzanne Bastien is a contemporary art gallery in Port Vila that Suzanne Bastien opened in hopes of "continued nurturing of contemporary art for future generations". The spiritual, social, and physical connection expressed by contemporary artists have indicated different communities, regions, and islands of Vanuatu with

2394-425: The food would be dependent on the ranking of the female and males status in the community. Food prepared in the separate fire closest to the entrance of the household hut are reserved for women, children and ungraded boys while the fire closest to the back of the hut is reserved for men and graded boys. The food prepared in the men's hut would be further divided into four separate fires for the four different rankings of

2457-747: The ground for certain games. Oral literature was common amongst ni-Vanuatu as written literature wasn't introduced until European missionaries created formal schools. Folk tales, myths, legends, songs, and poetry were passed across generations by word of mouth before written literature was introduced. Kastom can be seen in different forms of visual and material arts by indigenous ni-Vanuatu. Material forms of art are passed down for generations as they represent customary practices such as fishing, rituals, clothing, and food preparation. The Vanuatu Cultural Centre and National Museum display artefacts collected and donated by anthropologists from 150 years ago. These artefacts are representations of cultural practices of

2520-498: The high frequencies of B4a1a1 are the result of drift and represent the descendants of a very few successful East Asian females. Austronesian languages and cultural traits were introduced along the north and south-east coasts of New Guinea and in some of the islands north and east of New Guinea by migrating Austronesians, probably starting over 3,500 years ago. This was followed by long periods of interaction that resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture. It

2583-455: The house. Women who went overseas for their tertiary studies and returned have expressed the contrasting differences of Western and Vanuatu lifestyles. Independence was viewed differently in particular, as privacy in Western cultures was looser. Although there are no laws against women participating in politics, there were no women serving in parliament during the 2016 election. Hilda Lini of

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2646-517: The independence of Vanuatu. The Vanuatu Cultural Centre established a scheme whereby some of its researchers were indigenous; they were called "filwoka" (from Eng. fieldworker ). Recognition of ni-Vanuatu women in the political, business and social bubble has been growing recently; however, there are barriers that impede this growth. Social standards of Pacific women heavily emphasize the women's role as nurturers, which consists of domestic tasks such as washing clothes, cooking, gardening, and cleaning

2709-429: The indigenous community of Vanuatu; however, disruption from colonialism has halted and destroyed records of these cultural and social remnants. Pottery can be dated back as early as 1000BC on the islands of Efate with the pots found to be decorated with different styles in different regions of Vanuatu. Two main techniques were used to make these pots. The first technique involved a long coil of clay being attached to

2772-407: The introduction of modern facilities led to Vanuatu's economic momentum, which helped form the backbone of the island's copra production. Copra production was the main economic focus as other areas such as forestry, fishing, and native crafts were underdeveloped at the time. Food crops, including yams, taro, and cassava, are used for local consumption; copra production such as coconuts and cocoa make up

2835-533: The islands, deeming it the New Hebrides. At the end of the 19th century, ni-Vanuatu were regularly kidnapped and forced to work in plantations in Fiji and Australia, a practice now known as " blackbirding ". In 1906, France and Britain established the New Hebrides Condominium . During the joint rule of the two countries, the ni-Vanuatu lived under both French and British authority. On 30 July 1980,

2898-433: The main copra of coconut plantations. Competition from overseas in combination with natural disasters led to a solution of sourcing different agricultural mediums such as cattle. Local demands for meat as well as exports welcomed another economic boom in Vanuatu. Prior to Vanuatu's independence in 1980, the French government offered additional support to the French population. Free education and buildings were developed whilst

2961-477: The majority of Vanuatu's exports. Profiles of labour workers, miners, and construction workers were mainly of Melanesian descent as labour demands rose with the economic boom. In 1953, Vietnamese workers started returning to their home country, most of them having done so by 1963. This caused a shortage in plantation workers which in turn led to recruitment from other islands such as Tahiti. Temperamental weather strongly impacted plantations, as hurricanes destroyed

3024-490: The masks are no longer used, the aesthetics and representations of the ancestral world continue to embody the kastoms of ni-vanuatus. Women in particular have a unique perspective in their relationship to traditional customs and colonial ideas. Island dresses represent a national connection to Vanuatu; however, many ni-Vanuatu women consciously choose to adopt modern clothing as attitudes towards convenience, aesthetics, and gender equality are considered. Although modern clothing

3087-538: The men in the community. Kava is a beverage in the Oceanic regions of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. Kava plays a central role in spiritual, cultural, and social practices of indigenous ni-Vanatu. There are remedial notions of kava that it could be used for medicinal purposes. Kava bowls are used in preparation and serving of the beverage with different types of materials being used. Kava bowls are considered sacred and have been traditionally used exclusively for kava drinking. Melanesians Melanesians are

3150-416: The ni-Vanuatu population live in rural areas, whereas the remaining 25% population live in urban areas. Port Vila and Luganville are the primary urban cities with Port Villa having a population of 35,901. The total land area is 12,189 km with a population growth rate of 1.67%. Christianity makes up the majority of the religious community as 93.5% of the population identify as Christian as of 2020. Vanuatu

3213-510: The ni-Vanuatu. In 1979, a year before independence, the Vanua'aku Pati of Parliament vowed to promote the "preservation and promotion of New Hebrides culture and languages", thereby sponsoring a first National Arts Festival in Port Villa to express support of kastom in the community. Parliament faced ongoing pressure from the community to preserve the traditions of ni-Vanuatu, particularly in

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3276-416: The ongoing Western influence on Melanesian culture. Indigenous communities have diets that involve foraging and fishing as their main method of sustenance. It wasn't until European involvement of livestock and copra production that cattle meat and cocoa were introduced. Root vegetables such as taro and yams are a staple of traditional ni-Vanatu communities as they are considered "strong foods" that make

3339-582: The only known modern humans whose prehistoric ancestors interbred with the Denisova hominin , sharing 4%–6% of their genome with this ancient cousin of the Neanderthal. Most people with blond hair are Northern European white European ethno-racial origins. It evolved independently in Melanesia, where Melanesians of some islands (along with some indigenous Australians ) are one of a few non-European ethnic groups who have blond hair. This has been traced to an allele of TYRP1 unique to these people, and

3402-412: The people strong and energetic. Hunting and fishing were designated as a role for men due to a cultural belief that a woman being on a boat would make her infertile. Thus men would hunt for fish while women would feed pigs and forage for root vegetables. Roles for men and women would be divided equally in food preparation as they have different roles in the household hut, or men's hut. However, division of

3465-405: The peoples not only distinguished between the islands, but also by the languages, topography, and size of an island. Such diversity developed over the tens of thousands of years since initial settlement, as well as after the more recent arrival of Polynesian ancestors at the islands. Papuan-speaking groups in particular were found to be the most differentiated, while Austronesian-speaking groups along

3528-400: The peoples of Oceania into four racial groups: Malayans, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. D'Urville's model differed from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent in referring to 'Melanesians' rather than 'Mélaniens.' He derived the name Melanesia from Greek μέλας , black , and νῆσος , island , to mean "islands of black people". Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mélaniens from

3591-415: The post-colonial era, leading to the teaching of indigenous culture being implemented in schools as well as the development of art centres. Masks called tamate are worn by men during ceremonies and rituals. These masks are used to hide the faces of dancers as ancestral spirits enter the dancer. After the ritual is complete, it is thought that the ancestor's spirit is rebirthed as a tamate spirit. Although

3654-636: The predominant and indigenous inhabitants of Melanesia , in an area stretching from New Guinea to the Fiji Islands . Most speak one of the many languages of the Austronesian language family (especially ones in the Oceanic branch) or one of the many unrelated families of Papuan languages . There are several creoles of the region, such as Tok Pisin , Hiri Motu , Solomon Islands Pijin , Bislama , and Papuan Malay . The origin of Melanesians

3717-792: The use of Bislama as a lingua franca . Upon the nation's independence in 1980, three languages have become official in Vanuatu: English, French and Bislama . French and English are used mainly for written communication whereas Bislama is widely used for verbal communication. Bislama serves as the country's lingua franca: it serves as a bridge between citizens educated in French vs. English; and it also allows speakers of different indigenous languages to communicate among themselves. Official welcoming speeches, opening of parliament, and most official events use Bislama. Ni-Vanuatu of different ethnic backgrounds, such as Chinese and Vietnamese often use Bislama as greetings and opening introductions as

3780-603: Was an 'old black race' in the Pacific who were conquered or defeated by the peoples of what is now called Polynesia , whom he distinguished as having lighter skin. By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate, 15-race model of human diversity. He described the inhabitants of modern-day Melanesia as Mélaniens , a distinct racial group from the Australian and Neptunian (i.e. Polynesian) races surrounding them. In 1832 Dumont D'Urville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work. He classified

3843-504: Was first inhabited by Austronesian peoples , who created the Lapita culture, and later followed by Melanesian groups. They appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands , including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east. Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into

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3906-567: Was not introduced to ni-Vanuatu until the 1840s when English-speaking missionaries arrived. This was around the same time when European sourcing of sandalwood in the Pacific turned to Vanuatu. During the period of the New Hebrides, French and English competed for the status of main language; the population instead turned to Bislama as used as a tool of unity. Bislama was often essential as the privileged population were educated in English and middle to lower class population were often educated in French. Few people mastered both French and English, hence

3969-425: Was once postulated that from this area a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language ) departed to the east and became the forebears of the Polynesian people . This theory was, however, contradicted by a study published by Temple University finding that Polynesians and Micronesians have little genetic relation to Melanesians; instead, they found significant distinctions between groups living within

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