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66-527: Concepts of time and space play a major role in the Old Norse corpus's presentation of Norse cosmology. While events in Norse mythology describe a somewhat linear progression, various scholars in ancient Germanic studies note that Old Norse texts may imply or directly describe a fundamental belief in cyclic time . According to scholar John Lindow , "the cosmos might be formed and reformed on multiple occasions by

132-412: A certain grain raw; but they immediately burst into laughter, because they knew that one ought not eat it so ... and since then men imitate them whenever they have this grain cooked. The Bagadjimbiri threw a primal (a kind of large baton) at an animal and killed it—and this is how men have done it ever since. A great many myths describe the manner in which the brothers Bagadjimbiri founded all the customs of

198-449: A circle. Not historical time, which runs in a line." Jean Cocteau 's screenplay for L'Éternel retour portrays the timeless nature of the myth of Tristan and Isolde . The Heavy Metal band Therion released "Eternal Return" on their 2000 album " Deggial ." The song is thematically in line with Eliade's concept of the eternal return and would seem to be inspired by it. In Milan Kundera 's book, The Unbearable Lightness of Being ,

264-558: A closed circle, always returning to the sacred time celebrated during the New Year: the cosmos's entire duration is limited to one year, which repeats itself indefinitely. These ritual cycles do more than give humans a sense of value. Because traditional man identifies reality with the Sacred, he believes that the world can endure only if it remains in sacred time. He periodically revives sacred time through myths and rituals in order to keep

330-400: A magical power over them". The way a thing was created establishes that thing's nature, the pattern to which it should conform. By gaining control over the origin of a thing, one also gains control over the thing itself. Eliade concluded that, if origin and power are to be the same, "it is the first manifestation of a thing that is significant and valid". The Sacred first manifested itself in

396-419: A male and female jötunn, "and one of his legs begot a son with another", and these limbs too produced children. Ymir fed from rivers of milk that flowed from the teats of the primordial cow, Auðumbla . Auðumbla fed from salt she licked from rime stones. Over the course of three days, she licked free a beautiful and strong man, Búri . Búri's son Borr married a jötunn named Bestla , and the two had three sons:

462-544: A much broader definition of "myth" than many professional folklorists. According to the classical definition used by folklorists, many Greek stories conventionally called "myths" are not myths, precisely because they fall outside a sacred age of origins. ) Even Wendy Doniger, a religious-studies scholar and Eliade's successor at the University of Chicago, claims (in the Introduction to Eliade's own Shamanism ) that

528-421: A pessimistic vision of existence . When it is no longer a vehicle for reintegrating a primordial situation ... that is, when it is desacralized , cyclic time becomes terrifying; it is seen as a circle forever turning on itself, repeating itself to infinity. When the world becomes desacralized, the traditional cyclic view of time is too firmly entrenched to simply vanish. It survives, but in a profane form (such as

594-405: A transcendent reality". Something in our world is only "real" to the extent that it conforms to the Sacred or the patterns established by the Sacred. Hence, there is profane space, and there is sacred space. Sacred space is space where the Sacred manifests itself; unlike profane space, sacred space has a sense of direction: In the homogeneous and infinite expanse, in which no point of reference

660-400: A vision of where all events occurring after the mythical age cannot have value or reality); he indicated that, if the Sacred's essence lies only in its first appearance, then any later appearance must actually be the first appearance. Thus, an imitation of a mythical event is actually the mythical event itself, happening again— myths and rituals carry one back to the mythical age: In imitating

726-427: Is an idea for interpreting religious behavior proposed by the historian Mircea Eliade ; it is a belief expressed through behavior (sometimes implicitly, but often explicitly) that one is able to become contemporary with or return to the " mythical age"—the time when the events described in one's myths occurred. It should be distinguished from the philosophical concept of eternal return . According to Eliade, all

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792-422: Is expressed by the words for earth or world. ... The cosmos is conceived [of] as a living unity that is born, develops, and dies on the last day of the year, to be reborn on New Year's Day. ... At every New Year, time begins ab initio . The New Year ritual reenacts the mythical beginning of the cosmos. Therefore, by the logic of the eternal return, each New Year is the beginning of the cosmos. Thus, time flows in

858-452: Is less like the eternal return in most traditional societies (for whom time has an objective beginning, to which one should return) and more like the philosophical concept of eternal return—an endless cosmic cycle, with no beginning and, thus, no inherently sacred time. Although immensely influential in religious studies, the ideas behind Eliade's hypothesis of the eternal return are less well accepted in anthropology and sociology. According to

924-475: Is nostalgic: by retelling and reenacting mythical events, Australian Aborigines aim to evoke and relive the Dreamtime. However, Kirk believes that Native American myths "are not evocative or nostalgic in tone, but tend to be detailed and severely practical". In many Native American mythologies, animals once acted like humans, during the mythical age; but they don't any longer: the division between animals and men

990-399: Is now a firm one, and according to Kirk, "that in itself reduces the effectiveness of myth-telling as a reconstitution" of the mythical age. As for Greek myths, many of them fall outside any sacred age of origins: this challenges Eliade's claim that almost all myths are about origins, and that people retell and reenact myths to return to the time of origins. (Note that the classicist Kirk uses

1056-678: Is personified as Dagr (Old Norse 'day'); and Dagr's father, the god Dellingr (Old Norse 'shining'), may in some manner personify the dawn . Bodies of water also receive personification, such as the goddess Rán , her jötunn husband Ægir , and their wave-maiden children, the Nine Daughters of Ægir and Rán . Yggdrasil is a tree central to the Norse concept of the cosmos. The tree's branches extend into various realms, and various creatures dwell on and around it. The gods go to Yggdrasil daily to assemble at their things, traditional governing assemblies . The branches of Yggdrasil extend far into

1122-453: Is possible and hence no orientation is established, the hierophany [appearance of the Sacred] reveals an absolute fixed point, a center. Where the Sacred intersects our world, it appears in the form of ideal models (e.g., the actions and commandments of gods or mythical heroes). All things become truly "real" by imitating these models. Eliade claims: "For archaic man, reality is a function of

1188-458: Is profane, and sacredness lies in cyclic time. But, in Buddhism, Jainism , and some forms of Hinduism, even cyclic time has become profane. The Sacred cannot be found in the mythical age; it exists outside all ages. Thus, human fulfilment does not lie in returning to a sacred time, but in escaping from time altogether, in "a transcendence of the cosmos." In these religions, the "eternal return"

1254-422: Is the time when the Sacred entered our world, giving it form and meaning: "The manifestation of the sacred ontologically founds the world". Thus, the mythical age is sacred time, the only time that has value for traditional man. According to Eliade, in the archaic worldview, the power of a thing resides in its origin, so that "knowing the origin of an object, an animal, a plant, and so on is equivalent to acquiring

1320-520: Is those who die of sickness or old age. The Old Norse corpus does not clearly list the Nine Worlds, if it provides them at all. However, some scholars have proposed identifications for the nine. For example, Henry Adams Bellows (1923) says that the Nine Worlds consist of Ásgarðr , Vanaheimr , Álfheimr , Miðgarðr , Jötunheimr , Múspellsheimr , Svartálfaheimr , Niflheimr (sometimes Hel ), and perhaps Niðavellir . Some editions of translations of

1386-419: Is what creates the tidal effects. Moreso, the impact of climate change on water is likely to intensify as observed through the rising sea levels , water acidification and flooding . This means that climate change has pressure on water bodies. Climate change significantly affects bodies of water through rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and sea-level rise. Warmer temperatures lead to

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1452-614: The Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda feature illustrations of what the author or artist suspects the Nine Worlds to be in part based on the Völuspá stanza above. Ask and Embla—male and female respectively—were the first two humans, created by the gods from driftwood they encounter on a shore. The gods who form these first humans vary by source: According to the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , they are Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin, whereas in

1518-544: The Prose Edda they are Odin, Vili, and Vé. Ragnarök is a series of future events, including a great battle, foretold to ultimately result in the death of a number of major figures (including various deities), the occurrence of various natural disasters, and the subsequent submersion of the world in water. Afterward, the world will resurface anew and fertile, the surviving and returning gods will meet, and mankind will be repopulated by Líf and Lífþrasir , who will emerge from Yggdrasil. Cyclic time The " eternal return "

1584-621: The Tigris has its model in the star Anunit and the Euphrates in the star of the Swallow . A Sumerian text tells of the "place of the creation of the gods," where "the [divinity of] the flocks and grains" is to be found. For the Ural–Altaic peoples the mountains, in the same way, have an ideal archetype in the sky. In Egypt , places and nomes were named after the celestial "fields": first

1650-577: The Dreamtime" (the Australian mythical age) "into the present with potent and fruitful results". However, Kirk argues, Eliade takes this Australian phenomenon and applies it to other cultures uncritically. In short, Kirk sees Eliade's theory of eternal return as a universalization of the Australian Dreamtime concept. As two counterexamples to the eternal return, Kirk cites Native American mythology and Greek mythology. The eternal return

1716-507: The Karadjeri, and even their behavior. The mythical age was the time when the Sacred appeared and established reality. For traditional man, Eliade argues, (1) only the first appearance of something has value; (2) only the Sacred has value; and, therefore, (3) only the first appearance of the Sacred has value. Because the Sacred first appeared in the mythical age, only the mythical age has value. According to Eliade's hypothesis, "primitive man

1782-655: The Supernatural Beings are ritually re-created. In Kimberley the rock paintings, which are believed to have been painted by the Ancestors, are repainted in order to reactivate their creative force, as it was first manifested in the mythical times, at the beginning of the World. Every New Year, the people of Mesopotamia reenacted the Enuma Elish , a creation myth, in which the god Marduk slays Tiamat ,

1848-1226: The author fixates around the theme of eternal return. This is especially evident in his exploration of the concept of lightness. Body of water A body of water or waterbody is any significant accumulation of water on the surface of Earth or another planet. The term most often refers to oceans , seas , and lakes , but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds , wetlands , or more rarely, puddles . A body of water does not have to be still or contained; rivers , streams , canals , and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water. Most are naturally occurring geographical features , but some are artificial. There are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams , but some natural lakes are used as reservoirs . Similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays , but some harbors have been created through construction. Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways . Some bodies of water collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such as lakes and oceans. Bodies of water are affected by gravity, which

1914-433: The catastrophes and horrors of history—from collective deportations and massacres to atomic bombings—if beyond them he can glimpse no sign, no transhistorical meaning; if they are only the blind play of economic, social, or political forces, or, even worse, only the result of the 'liberties' that a minority takes and exercises directly on the stage of universal history? We know how, in the past, humanity has been able to endure

1980-420: The celestial fields were known, then they were identified in terrestrial geography. Further, there is profane time, and there is sacred time. According to Eliade, myths describe a time that is fundamentally different from historical time (what modern man would consider "normal" time). "In short," says Eliade, "myths describe ... breakthroughs of the sacred (or the 'supernatural') into the World". The mythical age

2046-663: The ceremony is called "repair" or "fixing" of the world, and, in English, "New Year". Its purpose is to re-establish or strengthen the Earth for the following year or two years. To some, the theory of the eternal return may suggest a view of traditional societies as stagnant and unimaginative, afraid to try anything new. However, Eliade argues that the eternal return does not lead to "a total cultural immobility". If it did, traditional societies would never have changed or evolved, and "ethnology knows of no single people that has not changed in

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2112-710: The classicist Geoffrey Kirk , this is because Eliade overextends the application of his ideas: for example, Eliade claims that the modern myth of the "noble savage" results from the religious tendency to idealize the primordial, mythical age. Kirk claims that Eliade's relative unpopularity among anthropologists and sociologists also results from Eliade's assumption—essential for belief in the eternal return as Eliade formulates it—that primitive and archaic cultures had concepts such as "being" and "real", although they lacked words for them. Kirk thinks Eliade's theory of eternal return applies to some cultures. Specifically, he agrees that Australian Aborigines used myths and rituals "to bring

2178-407: The course of time". The mere fact that traditional societies have colonized new lands and invented new technologies proves that the eternal return hasn't suppressed their sense of initiative. Far from suppressing creativity, Eliade argues, the eternal return promotes it: There is no reason to hesitate before setting out on a sea voyage, because the mythical Hero has already made [such a voyage] in

2244-489: The definitions given up till now of the religious phenomenon have one thing in common: Each has its own way of showing that the sacred and the religious life are the opposite of the profane and secular life . This concept had already been extensively formulated by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim in 1912. Scholars such as Jack Goody gave evidence that it may not be universal. This sharp distinction between

2310-457: The earth's lands with sea, forming a circle. From Ymir's skull they made the sky, which they placed above the earth in four points, each held by a dwarf ( Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri —Old Norse 'north, south, east, and west', respectively). After forming the dome of the Earth, the brothers Odin , Vili and Vé took sparks of light from Muspell and placed them around the Earth, both above and below. Some remained fixed and others moved through

2376-481: The earth. The Nine Worlds receive a second and final mention in the Poetic Edda in stanza 43 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál , where the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir engages in a deadly battle of wits with the disguised god Odin: Vafthruthnir spake : "Of the runes of the gods and the giants' race The truth indeed can I tell, (For to every world have I won;) To nine worlds came I, to Niflhel beneath, The home where dead men dwell." Vafthrudnir said: "I can tell you

2442-504: The eternal return as something positive, even necessary. However, in some religions, such as Buddhism and certain forms of Hinduism , the traditional cyclic view of time becomes a source of terror: In certain highly evolved societies, the intellectual élites progressively detach themselves from the patterns of traditional religion. The periodical resanctification of cosmic time then proves useless and without meaning. ... But repetition emptied of its religious content necessarily leads to

2508-418: The eternal return does not apply to all myths and rituals, although it may apply to many of them. In T. A. Barron 's The Lost Years of Merlin (the "Sacred Time" chapter), Merlin's mother says that "stories"—specifically, myths—are "real enough to help [her] live. And work. And find the meaning hidden in every dream, every leaf, every drop of dew." She states that "they dwell in sacred time, which flows in

2574-431: The events of the mythical age; hence, traditional man sees the mythical age as the foundation of value. Eliade's theory implies that as the power of a thing lies in its origin, the entire world's power lies in the cosmogony . If the Sacred established all valid patterns in the beginning, during the time recorded in myth, then the mythical age is sacred time—the only time that contains any value. Man's life only has value to

2640-557: The exemplary acts of a god or of a mythic hero , or simply by recounting their adventures, the man of an archaic society detaches himself from profane time and magically re-enters the Great Time, the sacred time. Myth and ritual are vehicles of "eternal return" to the mythical age. Traditional man's myth- and ritual-filled life constantly unites him with sacred time, giving his existence value. As an example of this phenomenon, Eliade cites church services, by which churchgoers "return" to

2706-627: The extent that it conforms to the patterns of the mythical age. The religion of the Australian Aboriginals is supposed to contain many examples of the veneration paid to the mythical age. Just before the dawn of the first day, the Bagadjimbiri brothers emerged from the Earth in the form of dingos , and then turned into human giants whose heads touched the sky. Before the Bagadjimbiri came, nothing had existed. But when

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2772-405: The fabulous Time. All that is needed is to follow his example. Similarly, there is no reason to fear settling an unknown, wild territory, because one knows what to do. One has merely to repeat the cosmogonic ritual, whereupon the unknown territory (= "Chaos") is transformed into "Cosmos". According to Eliade, traditional man has endless creative possibilities because "the possibilities for applying

2838-457: The festival of the previous year or in the festival of a century earlier." According to Eliade, some traditional societies express their cyclic experience of time by equating the world with the year: In a number of North American Indian languages the term world (= Cosmos) is also used in the sense of year. The Yokuts says "the world has passed," meaning "a year has gone by." For the Yuki, the year

2904-486: The full acceptance of linear, historical time, with its "terror", is one of the reasons for modern man 's anxieties . Traditional societies escape this anxiety to an extent, as they refuse to completely acknowledge historical time. Eliade describes the difference between ancient and modern man's reactions to history, as well as modern man's impotence before the terror of history, as follows: In our day, when historical pressure no longer allows any escape, how can man tolerate

2970-514: The gods Odin , Vili and Vé . The sons killed Ymir, and Ymir's blood poured across the land, producing great floods that killed all of the jötnar but two ( Bergelmir and his unnamed wife, who sailed across the flooded landscape). Odin, Vili, and Vé took Ymir's corpse to the center of Ginnungagap and carved it. They made the earth from Ymir's flesh; the rocks from his bones; from his blood the sea, lakes, and oceans; and scree and stone from his molars, teeth, and remaining bone fragments. They surrounded

3036-406: The gods lived. Personifications, such as those of astronomical objects , time , and water bodies occur in Norse mythology. The Sun is personified as a goddess, Sól (Old Norse 'Sun'); the moon is personified as a male entity, Máni (Old Norse 'moon'); and the Earth too is personified ( Jörð , Old Norse 'earth'). Night appears personified as the female jötunn Nótt (Old Norse 'night'); day

3102-521: The heavens, and the tree is supported by three roots that extend far away into other locations; one to the well Urðarbrunnr in the heavens, one to the spring Hvergelmir , and another to the well Mímisbrunnr . Creatures live within Yggdrasil, including the dragon Níðhöggr , an unnamed eagle , and the stags Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór . Old Norse texts mention the existence of Níu Heimar , translated by scholars as "Nine Worlds". According to

3168-674: The imitation of a celestial archetype ." As evidence for this view, in The Myth of the Eternal Return , he cites a belief of the Iranian Zurvanites . The Zurvanites believed that each thing on Earth corresponds to a sacred, celestial counterpart: for the physical sky, there is a sacred sky; for the physical Earth, there is a sacred Earth; actions are virtuous by conforming to a sacred pattern. These are some other examples Eliade gives: According to Mesopotamian beliefs ,

3234-473: The myth of reincarnation ). Time is no longer static, as for the Karadjeri, for whom almost every action imitates a mythical model, keeping the world constantly in the mythical age. Nor is time cyclical but sacred, as for the ancient Mesopotamians, whose ritual calendar periodically returned the world to the mythical age. Rather, for some Dharmic religions , "time was homologized to the cosmic illusion ( māyā )". For most of traditional humanity, linear history

3300-433: The mythical model are endless". According to Eliade, this yearning to remain in the mythical age causes a "terror of history". Traditional man desires to escape the linear march of events, empty of any inherent value or sacrality. In Chapter 4 of The Myth of the Eternal Return (entitled "The Terror of History") and in the appendix to Myths, Dreams and Mysteries , Eliade suggests that the abandonment of mythical thought and

3366-454: The passion of a divine messenger or vegetation god), each new massacre repeated the glorious end of the martyrs. ... By virtue of this view, tens of millions of men were able, for century after century, to endure great historical pressures without despairing, without committing suicide or falling into that spiritual aridity that always brings with it a relativistic or nihilistic view of history In general, according to Eliade, traditional man sees

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3432-408: The poisonous substance within the flow came to harden and turn to ice. When the flow became entirely solid, a poisonous vapor rose from the ice and solidified into rime atop the solid river. These thick ice layers grew, in time spreading across the void of Ginnungagap . The northern region of Ginnungagap continued to fill with weight from the growing substance and its accompanying blowing vapor, yet

3498-455: The primordial monster, and creates the world from her body. They correlated the birth of the year with the mythical birth of the world. By periodically bringing man back to the mythical age, these liturgical cycles turn time itself into a circle. Those who perform an annual ritual return to the same point in time every 365 days: "With each periodical [ritual] festival, the participants find the same sacred time—the same that had been manifested in

3564-585: The rising sea." Drawing in part on various eddic poems, the Gylfaginning section of the Prose Edda contains an account of the development and creation of the cosmos: long before the Earth came to be, there existed the bright and flaming place called Muspell —a location so hot that foreigners may not enter it—and the foggy land of Niflheim . In Niflheim was a spring, Hvergelmir , and from it flow numerous rivers. Together these rivers, known as Élivágar, flowed further and further from their source. Eventually

3630-405: The sacred and the profane is Eliade's trademark theory. According to Eliade, traditional man distinguishes two levels of existence: (1) the Sacred, and (2) the profane world. (Here "the Sacred" can be God, gods, mythical ancestors, or any other beings who established the world's structure.) To traditional man, things "acquire their reality, their identity, only to the extent of their participation in

3696-404: The sacred time of Scripture: Just as a church constitutes a break in plane in the profane space of a modern city, [so] the service celebrated inside [the church] marks a break in profane temporal duration. It is no longer today's historical time that is present—the time that is experienced, for example, in the adjacent streets—but the time in which the historical existence of Jesus Christ occurred,

3762-459: The seashore, they found two trees and shaped humans of them. Odin gave them spirit and life, Vili gave them wit and feeling, and Vé gave them form, speech, hearing, and sight. They gave them clothing and names: the man was called Askr, and the woman Embla. They were the ancestors of mankind who lived in Midgard. The brothers made for themselves in the middle of the world a city called Asgard , where

3828-453: The second stanza of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , the Nine Worlds surround the tree Yggdrasil. As recalled by a dead völva in the poem: I remember yet the giants of yore, Who gave me bread in the days gone by; Nine worlds I knew, the nine in the tree With mighty roots beneath the mold. I recall being reared by Jotuns, in days long gone. If I look back, I recall nine worlds, nine wood-witches, that renowned tree of fate below

3894-444: The sky in predetermined courses. The trio provided land for the jötnar to leave by the sea. Using Ymir's eyelashes, the trio built a fortification around the center of the landmass to contain the hostility of the jötnar. They called this fortification Miðgarðr (Old Norse 'central enclosure'). Finally, from Ymir's brains, they formed the clouds. From Ymir's eyebrows they crafted a stronghold named Midgard . When they were walking along

3960-410: The southern portion of Ginnungagap remained clear due to its proximity to the sparks and flames of Muspell. Between Niflheim and Muspell, ice and fire, was a placid location, "as mild as a windless sky". When the rime and the blowing heat met, the liquid melted and dropped, and this mixture formed the primordial being Ymir , the ancestor of all jötnar . Ymir sweated while sleeping. From his left arm grew

4026-472: The sufferings we have enumerated: they were regarded as a punishment inflicted by God, the syndrome of the decline of the "age," and so on. And it was possible to accept them precisely because they had a metahistorical meaning ... Every war rehearsed the struggle between good and evil, every fresh social injustice was identified with the sufferings of the Saviour (or, for example, in the pre-Christian world, with

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4092-538: The sun rose, and the brothers began naming things, the "plants and animals began really to exist". The brothers met a group of people and organized them into a civilized society. The people of this tribe—the Karadjeri of Australia —still imitate the two brothers in many ways: One of the Bagadjimbiri stopped to urinate ... That is the reason why the Australian Karadjeri stop and take up a special position in order to urinate. ... The brothers stopped and ate

4158-469: The time sanctified by his preaching, by his passion, death, and resurrection. Eliade attributes the well-known "cyclic" view of time in ancient thought to the eternal return. In many religions, a ritual cycle correlates certain parts of the year with mythical events, making each year a repetition of the mythical age. For instance, Australian Aboriginal peoples annually reenact the events of the "Dreamtime": The animals and plants created in illo tempore by

4224-611: The true secrets of the Jotun and all the gods because I've journeyed into all of the nine worlds below Niflhel Where the dead dwell below Hel." The Nine Worlds receive a single mention in the Prose Edda , occurring section 34 of the Gylfaginning portion of the book. The section describes how Odin threw Loki 's daughter Hel into the underworld , and granted her power over all Nine Worlds: Hel he threw into Niflheim and gave her authority over nine worlds, such that she has to administer board and lodging to those sent to her, and that

4290-536: The universe in existence. In many cultures, this belief appears to be consciously held and clearly stated. From the perspective of these societies, the world must be periodically renewed or it may perish. The idea that the Cosmos is threatened with ruin if not annually re-created provides the inspiration for the chief festival of the California Karok , Hupa , and Yurok tribes. In the respective languages

4356-402: Was interested only in the beginnings ... to him it mattered little what had happened to himself, or to others like him, in more or less distant times". Hence, traditional societies express a "nostalgia for the origins", a yearning to return to the mythical age. To traditional man, life only has value in sacred time. Eliade also explained how traditional man could find value for his own life (in

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