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95-570: Most residents of Nice and its region no longer speak Niçard, and the very few who do are fully bilingual in French as Nissard has lost its function of a vernacular language decades ago. Nonetheless, today there is a developing revival of the use of the language. Some local television news is presented in Niçard (with French subtitles) and street signs in the old town of Nice are written in the dialect as well as in French. The Niçard song Nissa La Bella

190-415: A Greek refrain); and Pearsall 's translation of the carol In Dulci Jubilo (1837, in mixed English and Latin verse). An example of modern humorous macaronic verse is the anonymous English/Latin poem Carmen Possum (" The Opossum's Song "), which is sometimes used as a teaching and motivational aid in elementary Latin language classes. Other similar examples are The Motor Bus by A. D. Godley , and

285-412: A "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age three as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984). Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he or she is immersed in

380-601: A certain very marginally enhanced or no different executive function , and older onset for dementia . More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation. An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects. Second language acquisition results in

475-529: A consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (e.g., Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more persons and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons. In sequential bilingualism , learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire

570-475: A continuum between internationalization and localization . Due to the status of English in computing , software development nearly always uses it (but not in the case of non-English-based programming languages ). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. The first recorded use of

665-432: A continuum between internationalization and localization : Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages ) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as office suites , web browsers , etc.). Due to

760-524: A culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric , then, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture. Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing. People who learn multiple languages may also experience positive transfer –

855-444: A different language from the source text; macaronic texts which mix together two or more languages with the expectation that the reader will understand both; the existence of separate sacred and vernacular languages (such as Church Latin vs. common forms of Latin , and Hebrew vs. Aramaic and Jewish languages ); and the frequency of linguistic borrowings and other results of language contact . The definition of multilingualism

950-435: A general sense, may refer to any individual with a natural or innate talent for a particular field; however, people diagnosed with savant syndrome are specifically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate certain profound and prodigious capacities or certain abilities far in excess of what would usually be considered normal, occasionally including a prodigious capacity for languages. Savant syndrome

1045-456: A global lingua franca , sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries in question have just one domestic official language. This occurs especially in regions such as Scandinavia and the Benelux , as well as among Germanophones , but the phenomenon has also been expanding into some non-Germanic countries. One view is that of the linguist Noam Chomsky in what he calls

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1140-1067: A hint of Greek . While some of those early works had a clear humorous intent, many use the language mix for lyrical effect. Another early example is in the Middle English recitals The Towneley Plays (c.1460). In The Talents (play 24), Pontius Pilate delivers a rhyming speech in mixed English and Latin. A number of English political poems in the 14th century alternated (Middle) English and Latin lines, such as in MS Digby 196: The taxe hath tened [ruined] vs alle,       Probat hoc mors tot validorum   The Kyng þerof had small       fuit in manibus cupidorum.   yt had ful hard hansell,       dans causam fine dolorum;   vengeaunce nedes most fall,       propter peccata malorum    (etc) Several anthems also contain both Latin and English. In

1235-722: A language (including but not limited to its idioms and eponyms ) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively can form an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be. Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural empathy , open-mindedness and social initiative. The idea of linguistic relativity , which claims that

1330-644: A lexical deficit due to second language acquisition and bilingualism results in decreased verbal fluency. Bilingual and multilingual individuals are shown to have superior auditory processing abilities compared to monolingual individuals. Several investigations have compared auditory processing abilities of monolingual and bilingual individuals using tasks such as gap detection, temporal ordering, pitch pattern recognition etc. In general, results of studies have reported superior performance among bilingual and multilingual individuals. Furthermore, among bilingual individuals, one's level of proficiency in one's second language

1425-411: A mixture of languages , particularly bilingual puns or situations in which the languages are otherwise used in the same context (rather than simply discrete segments of a text being in different languages). Hybrid words are effectively "internally macaronic". In spoken language, code-switching is using more than one language or dialect within the same conversation. Macaronic Latin in particular

1520-411: A native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation

1615-772: A new one. Once they pass an age that seems to correlate closely with the critical period , around the age of 12, total loss of a native language is not typical, although it is still possible for speakers to experience diminished expressive capacity if the language is never practiced. There is no evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive function and there is a small bilingual disadvantage in verbal fluency. Some initial reports concluded that people who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals, and this idea persisted in part due to publication bias . Current meta-analyses find no effect. Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have

1710-524: A school setting where instruction is offered in a different language. In simultaneous bilingualism , the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language. The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition

1805-453: A shift in situation or context, independent of language." However, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional connotations and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of

1900-442: A strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages. This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within

1995-445: A unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person." However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. François Grosjean wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to

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2090-628: A way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT Jan A. Nelson and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive

2185-415: A year later found that switching to a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from social norms and constraints, such as political correctness . In 2014, another study showed that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with moral dilemmas, such as the trolley problem and its variations. Participants in this study chose the utilitarian option more often in

2280-411: Is Xenophon 's line "they did not take the city; but in fact they had no hope of taking it" ( οὐκ ἔλαβον πόλιν· άλλα γὰρ ἐλπὶς ἔφη κακά , ouk élabon pólin; álla gàr elpìs éphē kaká ). Read in the French manner , this becomes Où qu'est la bonne Pauline? A la gare. Elle pisse et fait caca. ('Where is Pauline the maid? At the [railway] station. She's pissing and taking a shit.') Macaronic text

2375-451: Is French.) Distinction ebbs before a herd of vulgar plebs ! (A Latin word.) Twould fill with joy and madness stark the oι πoλλoί ! (A Greek remark.) One Latin word, one Greek remark, and one that's French. "Macaronisms" are frequently used in films, especially comedies. In Charlie Chaplin 's anti-war comedy The Great Dictator , the title character speaks English mixed with a parody of German (e.g. "Cheese-und-cracken"). This

2470-460: Is a cognitive process , rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning. Rod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation . European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to

2565-613: Is a fusion of two or more languages that is grammatically simplified but can be understood by native speakers of any of the original languages. Some pidgins develop into "real" creole languages (such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore ), while others simply evolve into slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang , which remains more or less mutually intelligible with standard Finnish and Swedish). In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have

2660-536: Is a jumbled jargon made up of vernacular words given Latin endings or of Latin words mixed with the vernacular in a pastiche (compare dog Latin ). The word macaronic comes from the Neo-Latin macaronicus , which is from the Italian maccarone , or "dumpling", regarded as coarse peasant fare. It is generally derogatory and used when the mixing of languages has a humorous or satirical intent or effect but

2755-422: Is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages. A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while

2850-613: Is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. At one end of the linguistic continuum, multilingualism may be defined as the mastery of more than one language. The speaker would have knowledge of and control over the languages equivalent to that of a native speaker. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-competent . In addition, there

2945-760: Is a toy for the winter'. Another example is the book Mots d'Heures: Gousses, Rames: The d'Antin Manuscript . Macaronisms figure prominently in The Trilogy by the Polish novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz , and are one of the major compositional principles for James Joyce's novel Finnegans Wake . In Michael Flynn 's science fiction novels of the Spiral Arm series, a massive interplanetary exodus from all Earth language groups has led to star system settlements derived from random language and culture admixtures. At

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3040-465: Is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots . Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood,

3135-512: Is almost always associated with an increased memory capacity of some sort, which can, for certain savants, aid in storing and retrieving knowledge of different languages. In 1991, for example, linguists Neil Smith and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli described a man, named Christopher, who learned sixteen languages even with a non-verbal IQ between 40 and 70. Christopher was born in 1962, and he was diagnosed with brain damage approximately six months after his birth. Despite being institutionalized because he

3230-638: Is also using proparoxytone words. It is also sharing with Aranese a quite heavy influence of a neighbouring language (Catalan for Aranese, Italian for Niçard). Regional differences are broadly accepted by linguists and French national education authorities in Occitan . Domergue Sumien defined in his PhD thesis Occitan as a pluricentric language , and included Niçard among the seven regional standards to be taught. The French Ministry of National Education uses either “nissart-langue d’oc” or “occitan-langue d’oc nissart”. Multilingualism Multilingualism

3325-598: Is big in the BON (As well as the hip and the thigh). And when she exhales, OUI haul out our sails And ride on the wind of VERSAILLES. A whole body of comic verse exists created by John O'Mill, pseudonym of Johan van der Meulen , a teacher of English at the Rijks HBS (State Grammar School), Breda , the Netherlands . These are in a mixture of English and Dutch, often playing on common mistakes made when translating from

3420-561: Is especially common in cultures with widespread bilingualism or language contact , such as Ireland before the middle of the nineteenth century. Macaronic traditional songs such as Siúil A Rúin are quite common in Ireland. In Scotland, macaronic songs have been popular among Highland immigrants to Glasgow , using English and Scottish Gaelic as a device to express the alien nature of the anglophone environment. An example: When I came down to Glasgow first, a-mach air Tìr nan Gall. I

3515-478: Is generally referred to as a polyglot , a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in

3610-547: Is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English . Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political reasons. One example is the creation of Serbo-Croatian as a standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects; after

3705-533: Is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia . Most speakers of Swedish , Norwegian and Danish can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages

3800-616: Is often regarded as the "anthem" of Nice. Niçard is written using two forms: An Italian orthography was abandoned when Nice joined the French Empire in 1861. It was briefly reinstated in 1942 and 1943 when Italy occupied and administered the city. The classifications of Occitan in dialects hesitate between defining Niçard as a specific dialect or including it in Maritime Provençal. Niçard shares some phonetical archaisms with Occitan areas as distant as Aranese , which

3895-434: Is someone who can communicate in more than one language actively (through speaking, writing, or signing). Multilingual people can logically speak any language they write in (aside from mute multilingual people ), but they cannot necessarily write in any language they speak. More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person

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3990-620: Is sometimes applied to more serious mixed-language literature. Texts that mixed Latin and vernacular language apparently arose throughout Europe at the end of the Middle Ages —a time when Latin was still the working language of scholars, clerics and university students, but was losing ground to vernacular among poets, minstrels and storytellers. An early example is from 1130, in the Gospel book of Munsterbilzen Abbey . The following sentence mixes late Old Dutch and Latin: Tesi samanunga

4085-603: Is still used by modern Italian authors, e.g. by Carlo Emilio Gadda and Beppe Fenoglio . Other examples are provided by the character Salvatore in Umberto Eco 's The Name of the Rose , and the peasant hero of his Baudolino . Dario Fo 's Mistero Buffo (" Comic Mystery Play ") features grammelot sketches using language with macaronic elements. The 2001 novel The Last Samurai by Helen DeWitt includes portions of Japanese, Classical Greek , and Inuktitut , although

4180-575: Is the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili of Francesco Colonna (1499), which was basically written using Italian syntax and morphology, but using a made-up vocabulary based on roots from Latin, Greek , and occasionally others. However, while the Hypnerotomachia is contemporary with Tifi's Macaronea , its mixed language is not used for plain humor, but rather as an aesthetic device to underscore the fantastic but refined nature of

4275-440: Is the use of more than one language , either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. When the languages are just two, it is usually called Bilingualism . It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population . More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue ; but many read and write in one language. Being multilingual

4370-742: Is usually called non-convergent discourse , a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists between Dutch and Afrikaans , although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia , where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages ( Czech and Slovak ) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it

4465-471: The Fat Man dilemma when it was presented in a foreign language. For the related Switch Track dilemma, however, the use of a foreign language presented no significant influence on the choices participants made. The authors of this study surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language. Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of

4560-453: The ancient Romans said, festina lente ... Lord Tolloller: I have often had a use / For a thorough-bred excuse / Of a sudden (which is English for repente )... Lord Mountararat: Now, listen, pray to me, / For this paradox will be / Carried, nobody at all contradicente ... Then, the chorus of peers sing macaronic verse as they attempt to resist the fairies' powers: Our lordly style you shall not quench with base canaille ! (That word

4655-619: The anonymous Up I arose in verno tempore . Ezra Pound 's The Cantos makes use of Chinese, Greek, Latin, and Italian, among other languages. Recent examples are the mużajki or 'mosaics' (2007) of Maltese poet Antoine Cassar mixing English, Spanish, Maltese , Italian, and French; works of Italian writer Guido Monte ; and the late poetry of Ivan Blatný combining Czech with English. Brian P. Cleary 's "What Can I C'est?" makes use of macaronic verse, as do other poems in his book Rainbow Soup: Adventures in Poetry : My auntie Michelle

4750-459: The book. Tifi's Macaronea was a popular success, and the writing of humorous texts in macaronic Latin became a fad in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly in Italian, but also in many other European languages. An important Italian example was Baldo by Teofilo Folengo , who described his own verses as "a gross, rude, and rustic mixture of flour, cheese, and butter". Macaronic verse

4845-566: The breakup of Yugoslavia , it was split into Serbian , Croatian , Bosnian and Montenegrin . Another example is the historical dismissal of Ukrainian as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings. Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least three languages:

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4940-621: The case of 'Nolo mortem peccatoris' by Thomas Morley , the Latin is used as a refrain: Nolo mortem peccatoris; Haec sunt verba Salvatoris. Father I am thine only Son, sent down from heav’n mankind to save. Father, all things fulfilled and done according to thy will, I have. Father, my will now all is this: Nolo mortem peccatoris. Father, behold my painful smart, taken for man on ev’ry side; Ev'n from my birth to death most tart, no kind of pain I have denied, but suffered all, and all for this: Nolo mortem peccatoris. Translated: "'I do not wish

5035-923: The case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other. In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill that a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on

5130-411: The community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French. Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language – the common underlying proficiency hypothesis. Cummins' work sought to overcome

5225-665: The death of the wicked'; These are the words of the Saviour." An allusion to John 3:17 and 2 Peter 3:9. The Scottish Chaucerian William Dunbar 's Lament for the Makaris uses as a refrain for every four-line stanza the phrase from the Office of the Dead " Timor mortis conturbat me " ["The fear of death disturbs me"]. The term macaronic is believed to have originated in Padua in

5320-425: The development of new languages by forming connections from one language to another. Second language acquisition results in a lexical deficit. Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as

5415-401: The development of the tools, working with third parties and standards bodies to ensure that broad availability of multilingual app development is provided. With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform development for Universal Windows Platform apps as well as for iOS and Android apps. Macaronic language Macaronic language is any expression using

5510-494: The early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically. These students exhibit more cognitive flexibility , including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required will perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools. A multilingual person

5605-647: The effect of changing one or both of them to the point a new, non-creole language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided by the political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High German with Hebrew and also has borrowings from Slavic languages. Bilingual interaction can even take place without speakers switching between languages or fusing them together. In certain areas, it

5700-535: The exclusive use of another language, and effectively "become native" in a language that was once secondary after the L1 undergoes total attrition. This is most commonly seen among immigrant communities and has been the subject of substantial academic study. The most important factor in spontaneous, total L1 loss appears to be age; in the absence of neurological dysfunction or injury, only young children typically are at risk of forgetting their native language and switching to

5795-406: The expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. Logic in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, is the basis of rhetoric, evolved out of

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5890-417: The family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of languages , namely

5985-420: The first language. Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire a second language. Previously, children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, but today, researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is closer to five years. An interesting outcome of studies during

6080-473: The gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United States by O. Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits, as bilingual people were found to earn around $ 3,000 more per year in salary than monolinguals. A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It

6175-432: The human language acquisition device —a mechanism that enables a learner to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by surrounding speakers. This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty , which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a second language (L2). If language learning

6270-558: The interconnectedness among neighboring countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union . Based on the research in Ann Fathman's The Relationship Between Age and Second Language Productive Ability , there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but

6365-576: The language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time. Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking; thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven : "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent

6460-467: The late 15th century, apparently from maccarona , a kind of pasta or dumpling eaten by peasants at that time. (That is also the presumed origin of maccheroni .) Its association with the genre comes from the Macaronea , a comical poem by Tifi Odasi in mixed Latin and Italian, published in 1488 or 1489. Another example of the genre is Tosontea by Corrado of Padua , which was published at about

6555-451: The latter to the former. The finale of act 1 of Gilbert and Sullivan 's Savoy Opera Iolanthe has several instances of humorous macaronic verse. First, the three lords mix Italian and Latin phrases into their discussion of Iolanthe's age: Lord Mountararat: This gentleman is seen, / With a maid of seventeen, / A-taking of his dolce far niente ... Lord Chancellor: Recollect yourself, I pray, / And be careful what you say- / As

6650-671: The local languages of Turkish and Greek . Macaronic verse was also common in medieval India, where the influence of the Muslim rulers led to poems being written in alternating indigenous Hindi and the Persian language. This style was used by poet Amir Khusro and played a major role in the rise of the Urdu or Hindustani language . Occasionally language is unintentionally macaronic. One particularly famed piece of schoolyard Greek in France

6745-767: The notion that monolingual solutions are essential to the realization of functional bilingualism, with multilingual solutions ultimately leading to monolingualism. The theory is based on the observation of the Swedish language in Finland in environments such as schools is subordinated to the majority language Finnish for practical and social reasons, despite the positive characteristics associated with mutual language learning. Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of

6840-444: The order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age. In second language class, students commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and cultural patterns. Robert B. Kaplan believes that in second language classes, foreign students' papers may seem out of focus because the foreign student employs rhetoric and sequences of thought that violate

6935-522: The other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of " code-switching " in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize

7030-441: The parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in their parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or

7125-399: The perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second. The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of

7220-417: The person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described by the communication accommodation theory . Some multilingual people use code-switching , which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching allows speakers to participate in more than one cultural group or environment. Code-switching may also function as

7315-436: The process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the grammar or vocabulary of the new language is similar to those of the languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life. Translanguaging also supports the acquisition of new languages. It helps

7410-453: The reader is not expected to understand the passages that are not in English. Macaronic games are used by the literary group Oulipo in the form of interlinguistic homophonic transformation : replacing a known phrase with homophones from another language. The archetypal example is by François Le Lionnais , who transformed John Keats ' "A thing of beauty is a joy forever" into "Un singe de beauté est un jouet pour l'hiver": 'A monkey of beauty

7505-486: The same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through calquing . This results in speakers using terms like courrier noir (literally, mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail in French, chantage . Sometimes pidgins develop. A pidgin

7600-463: The same time as Tifi's Macaronea . Tifi and his contemporaries clearly intended to satirize the broken Latin used by many doctors, scholars and bureaucrats of their time. While this "macaronic Latin" ( macaronica verba ) could be due to ignorance or carelessness, it could also be the result of its speakers trying to make themselves understood by the vulgar folk without resorting to their speech. An important and unusual example of mixed-language text

7695-588: The so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is usually acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars disagree. Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called simultaneous bilinguals . It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other. People who speak more than one language have been reported to be better at language learning when compared to monolinguals. Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of

7790-484: The state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved: Note that the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms polyglossia , omnilingualism , and multipart-lingualism are more appropriate. Taxell's paradox refers to

7885-424: The status of English in computing , software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages ), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as

7980-414: The time of the novels' setting, several hundred years later, each planet has developed a macaronic pidgin, several of which are used for all the dialogs in the books. The Reverend Fergus Butler-Gallie 's second book bears a cross-lingual pun as its title, Priests de la Résistance . Two well-known examples of non-humorous macaronic verse are Byron 's Maid of Athens, ere we part (1810, in English with

8075-441: The two national languages (Finnish and Swedish) and one foreign language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also study further languages, such as German or Russian. In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India , schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being

8170-555: The use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual. The reverse phenomenon, where people who know more than one language end up losing command of some or all of their additional languages, is called language attrition . It has been documented that, under certain conditions, individuals may lose their L1 language proficiency completely, after switching to

8265-489: The word multilingual in the English language occurred in the 1830s. The word is a combination of multi- ("many") and - lingual ("pertaining to languages"). The phenomenon of multilingualism is as old as the very existence of different languages. Today, evidence of multilingualism in an area includes things such as bilingual signs , which represent the same message in more than one language. Historical examples include glosses in textual sources, which can provide notes in

8360-493: The world. Many polyglots know up to five or six languages, but the frequency of polyglotism drops off sharply past this point. Those who know more languages than five or six— Michael Erard suggests eleven or more, while Usman W. Chohan suggests six to eight (depending on proficiency) or more—are sometimes classed as hyperpolyglots . Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti , for example, was an Italian priest reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages. The term savant , in

8455-486: Was also reported to influence auditory processing abilities. Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and

8550-522: Was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilingualism still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate since Czechoslovakia split up. With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of

8645-424: Was edele unde scona et omnium virtutum pleniter plena Translated: This community was noble and pure, and completely full of all virtues. The Carmina Burana (collected c.1230) contains several poems mixing Latin with Medieval German or French. Another well-known example is the first stanza of the famous carol In Dulci Jubilo , whose original version (written around 1328) had Latin mixed with German, with

8740-875: Was like a man adrift, air iomrall 's dol air chall. [...] translation: When I came down to Glasgow first, down to the Lowlands (lit. "out to the land of foreigners"). I was like a man adrift, astray and lost. Folk and popular music of the Andes frequently alternates between Spanish and the given South American language of its region of origin. Some Classical Persian poems were written with alternating Persian and Arabic verses or hemistichs, most famously by Saadi and Hafez . Such poems were called molamma' ( ملمع , literally "speckled", plural molamma‘āt ملمعات ), Residing in Anatolia , in some of his poems Rumi mixed Persian with Arabic as well as

8835-579: Was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India . Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual. In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in

8930-579: Was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision-making skills. A study published

9025-467: Was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, could speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered to be unusual for most diagnosed with savant syndrome. Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact . Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it

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