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74-801: In Indian philosophical writings a prakarana refers to a genre of work that may be considered as roughly equivalent to the Western concept of a monograph . Nyayakusumanjali is a treatise belonging to this genre. Since the work consists of verses (known as karika s) interspersed with prose, it can be considered as a work of the genre Misra-prakarana (meaning "mixed- prakarana "). There are seventy-three verses in Nyayakusumanjali. These verses are distributed unevenly in five chapters (called Stabaka s, that is, "cluster of blossoms" or "bunch of flowers"). These chapters contain respectively twenty, four, twenty-three, six and twenty verses. These verses form

148-494: A 7th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region which was further propounded by his disciple Srinivasacharya . According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that

222-422: A contradiction, and argues that avidyā must either be non-different from Brahman or different from Brahman. If it is different from Brahman, the non-dualist position of Shankara is given up, but if it is non-different, it must exist ultimately as Brahman. Ramanuja claims that avidyā cannot be identical with Brahman because Brahman is pure knowledge, and avidyā is absence of knowledge. Ramanuja also argues that

296-559: A distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states, From the triad of suffering, arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it. That is useless – if you say so, I say: No, because suffering is not absolute and final. – Verse 1 The Guṇas (qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, rest on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally present. – Verse 12 Goodness

370-469: A philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with. Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language . While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools, their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended

444-525: A sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof). The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on

518-537: A theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche). Guna , it states, are of three types: Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas , but in different proportions. The interplay of these gunas defines

592-529: A valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas. Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types: atomic ( paramāṇu ) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible ( anitya ), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called "small" ( aṇu ). A composite, in this philosophy,

666-820: Is a realist āstika philosophy. The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic , methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the Nyāya Sūtras of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE. Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six prāmaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). In its metaphysics ,

740-401: Is a "closet Buddhist," suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment. However, Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real. He specifically rejects Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2.2.18, 2.2.19, 2.2.20, 2.2.25, among others. Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137)

814-704: Is called pramana . It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. Pramāṇa is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge. The focus of pramāṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired. Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six pramāṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths: Each of these are further categorised in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by

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888-422: Is considered to be alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries. – Verse 13 There is a general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, by mixture, by modification; for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively. – Verse 16 Since

962-513: Is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible. The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything). The Nyāya ( Sanskrit : न्याय) school

1036-537: Is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic. Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and commonly seen. Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known. Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person. It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that which is seen, and that which is not seen. Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release – are

1110-552: Is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara , who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada . He wrote extensive commentaries on

1184-400: Is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality. The Nyāya Sūtras begin: Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word – these are the means of right knowledge. Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which

1258-475: Is oneness in all of existence. They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality. Some believe that Shankara

1332-535: Is possible, because of the following reasons: The explanation of these four themes forms the content of the second Stabaka. Taking one by one the different means of valid cognition admitted by the opponents, Udayana shows in this Stabaka that none of them can disprove the existence of Isvara. The major portion of this Stabaka is devoted to the refutation of the Mimamsaka theory that valid cognition must be of an object not previously cognised. Udayana then shows that

1406-469: Is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its epistemology , metaphysics and ontology. The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school, like Buddhism , accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference. The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be

1480-466: Is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha , attended by thousands of gopis ; of the Vrindavan ; and devotion consists in self-surrender. Śuddhādvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531). The founding philosopher

1554-462: Is spiritually unreal". The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be". The concept of ātman is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as jivatman . Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there

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1628-400: Is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe. Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism , with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being . However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism,

1702-487: Is the earliest school of dualism ; Yoga (योग) combines the metaphysics of Samkhya with meditation and breath techniques; Nyaya (न्याय) is a school of logic emphasising direct realism ; Vaisheshika (वैषेशिक) is an offshoot of Nyaya concerned with atomism and naturalism ; Mimamsa (मीमांसा) is a school justifying ritual, faith, and religious obligations; and Vedanta (वेदान्त) contains various traditions that mostly embrace nondualism . Indian philosophy during

1776-785: Is the most developed and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). All of these have been further categorised by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error. The emergence of

1850-687: Is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism , with origins in the 1st millennium BCE. It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy , and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies. Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six pramāṇas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and sabda ( Āptavacana , word/testimony of reliable sources). Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter). It regards

1924-469: Is to refute the objections of the different schools against the existence of Isvara. The last chapter has a positive tone in the sense that it tries to produce arguments and proofs for the existence of Isvara. The first Stabaka begins with a dedicatory verse and it is followed with a statement regarding the theme dealt with in the book, namely the Supreme Soul. The author then summarises the reason for

1998-693: The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra , opens as follows: Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of dharma . The Supreme Good results from knowledge, produced from a particular dharma , of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by means of their resemblances and differences. The Vaiśeṣika school

2072-635: The Common Era . Some schools like Jainism , Buddhism , Yoga , Śaiva and Vedanta survived, but others, like Ajñana , Charvaka and Ājīvika did not. Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on ontology ( metaphysics , Brahman - Atman , Sunyata - Anatta ), reliable means of knowledge ( epistemology , Pramanas ), value system ( axiology ) and other topics. Indian philosophies share many concepts such as dharma , karma , samsara , dukkha , renunciation , meditation , with almost all of them focusing on

2146-567: The Indian subcontinent . The philosophies are often called darśana meaning, "to see" or "looking at." Ānvīkṣikī means “critical inquiry” or “investigation." Unlike darśana, ānvīkṣikī was used to refer to Indian philosophies by classical Indian philosophers, such as Chanakya in the Arthaśāstra . A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes

2220-509: The Puranas and the Āgamas . Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana , as well as theories on metaphysics , axiology , and other topics. In the history of India , the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era , and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha . Some scholars have questioned whether

2294-534: The Self is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom ( kaivalya ). In Indian philosophy , Yōga ( Sanskrit : योग) is, among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school. The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts

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2368-587: The Vedas as a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman ; and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas . (though there are exceptions to the latter two: Mimamsa and Samkhya respectively). There are six major (āstika) schools of Vedic philosophy — Nyaya , Vaisheshika , Samkhya , Yoga , Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta —and five major non-Vedic or heterodox (nāstika or sramanic) schools— Jain , Buddhist , Ajivika , Ajñana , and Charvaka . The āstika group embraces

2442-411: The Vedas as an essential source of its foundations, while the nāstika group does not. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of

2516-569: The śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasises jñānakāṇḍa (the portion of the Vedas that relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas). The Vedānta ( Sanskrit : वेदान्त) school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE and

2590-604: The Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non-intentional consciousness (consciousness that does not have an object), because all cognitions are necessarily about something. Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. Also called Tattvavāda and Bimbapratibimbavāda , the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya . The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu, Paramatman ) and

2664-735: The Mīmāṃsā school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini . The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to as pūrvamīmāṃsā or Karmamīmāṃsā in reference to the first part of the Vedas. The Mīmāṃsā school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added

2738-423: The Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge

2812-489: The Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism. Like Advaita Vedanta,

2886-532: The Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman , and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently,

2960-404: The Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries. Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism , that is all ultimate reality

3034-787: The Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school. A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali . Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras." Hindu philosophy recognises many types of Yoga, such as rāja yoga , jñāna yoga , karma yoga , bhakti yoga , tantra yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga , and hatha yoga . The Yoga school builds on

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3108-480: The Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realises the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman. The Vaiśeṣika ( Sanskrit : वैशेसिक) philosophy is a naturalist school. It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu ( atoms ), and that one's experiences are derived from

3182-400: The ancient and medieval periods also yielded philosophical systems that share concepts with the āstika traditions but reject the Vedas. These have been called nāstika (heterodox or non-orthodox) philosophies, and they include: Buddhism , Jainism , Charvaka , Ajivika , and others, which are thus broadly classified under Indian but not Hindu philosophy. Western scholars have debated

3256-455: The assemblage of perceivable objects is for use (by man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (in man); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must be some entity that enjoys (within man); Since there is a tendency to abstraction (in man), therefore soul is. – Verse 17 The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realisation of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of

3330-471: The authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four nāstika (heterodox) schools are prominent: Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhavacharya , identified by some as Vidyaranya , in his book ' Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha ', includes 16 philosophical systems current as of 14th century. Along with some of

3404-489: The character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life. Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs ( Jeevatmas ) who possess consciousness. Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God. The Samkhya karika , one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them. The text then presents

3478-1002: The chronological order in which they are believed to have been composed. Indian philosophy Confucianism Persons Topics Neo Confucianism New Confucianism Daoism Persons Topics Legalism Mohism Military and Strategy Han Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism Maoism General topics Vedic philosophy Mimamsa Vedanta Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Navya-Nyāya Vaisheshika Nāstika (heterodox) Tamil Other General topics Jainism Buddhism Traditions Topics Japanese Buddhism Japanese Confucianism Kokugaku Modern Thought Statism Kyoto School Korean Buddhism Korean Confucianism Persons Topics Donghak Modern Thought Persons Topics Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of

3552-405: The cognition of Isvara cannot be said to be invalid even according to the definition of valid cognition given by the opponents. Udayana brings forward in this Stabaka a number of proofs to establish the existence of Isvara. The various proofs can be summarized as follows. Isvara's existence is established from: Seven works have been ascribed to Udayana. The following are the titles of the works in

3626-526: The concept of personal god ( Ishvara , unlike Samkhya. The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda ( āptavacana , word/testimony of reliable sources). The universe is conceptualised as a duality in Yoga school: puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakṛti (mind, perception, matter); however,

3700-454: The core of the work, the prose passage that accompanies each being an elaborate explanation of it. After a few introductory lines, Udayana enumerates five principal arguments which are said to invalidate the existence of Isvara : "With regard to this there are five erroneous opinions (which assert that there exists no Isvara) on the ground that: The various chapters of the Nyayakusumanjali deal with and refute these five erroneous opinions in

3774-503: The different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge. For example, the Cārvāka nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge, the Samkhya school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony), while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge. Sāmkhya ( Sanskrit : सांख्य)

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3848-480: The diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures. Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism . Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. Jainism and Buddhism originated at

3922-475: The dualism of Dvaita was permanent. Dvaita sub-school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body. Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world. Salvation , in Dvaita, is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu. Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarkacharya ,

3996-470: The end of the Vedic period , while the various traditions grouped under Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Vedic philosophy Traditional Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of Indian philosophical systems that developed in tandem with early Hindu religious traditions during the iron and classical ages of India. In Indian tradition,

4070-504: The epistemology and metaphysics of dharma . To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name. The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance,

4144-428: The existence of a supra-mundane means for attaining the other world. There is a supra-mundane cause because of the following reasons: The discussion of these five arguments forms the subject matter of the first Stabaka. In this Stabaka, Udayana tries to refute the argument that the transmission of Dharma or religious duties is possible without an Isvara. Udayana argues that the transmission of Dharma or religious duties

4218-584: The individual Selfs (Atman) ( jīvātman ) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct. Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas ; it espouses dualism by theorising the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the Paramatman , in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta ,

4292-415: The interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school. The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE. The foundational text,

4366-409: The logical discussion on Isvara: Despite the fact that Isvara is acknowledged by all philosophical schools and religious sects under some name or other, this study which is to be designated as reflection is made as an act of worship (upäsanä) that comes after the listening to the scriptures (sravanam). Then the five objections against the existence of Isvara are listed. Udayana lists five arguments for

4440-421: The major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived. According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman . Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus

4514-516: The major orthodox and non-orthodox schools and sub-schools, it includes the following sub-schools: The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions. Epistemology

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4588-469: The objects of right knowledge. The Nyāya school uses a three-fold procedure: enumeration, definition, and examination. This procedure of enumeration, definition, and examination is recurrent in Navya-Nyāya texts like The Manual of Reason ( Tarka-Sangraha ). The Mīmāṃsā ( Sanskrit : मीमांसा) school emphasises religious hermeneutics and exegesis . It is a form of philosophical realism . Key texts of

4662-678: The order in which they have been enunciated. However, some scholars are of the opinion that the first Stabaka refutes the view of the Carvakas , the second the view of the Mimamsakas , the third that of the Buddhists , the fourth that of the Jains and the fifth the view of the Samkhyins . Of the five chapters, the first four chapters have a negative tone in the sense that their main intention

4736-452: The orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views. Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorised into āstika and nāstika schools of thought. The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ('six systems'). This schema

4810-658: The relationship and differences within āstika philosophies and with the nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, based on limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies . The various sibling traditions included in Indian philosophies are diverse and are united by: shared history and concepts, textual resources, ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology. Some heterodox ( nāstika ) traditions such as Charvaka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because

4884-432: The scope and value of language as a tool to also describe , develop and derive . Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasises karmakāṇḍa (the portion of

4958-442: The sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman. The Viśiṣṭādvaita sub-school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception ( avidyā ) is indescribable as either real or unreal ( anirvacanīya ). It sees this as

5032-501: The ultimate goal of liberation of the individual from dukkha and samsara through diverse range of spiritual practices ( moksha , nirvana ). While many sutra texts explicitly mention that the work leads to moksha, Indian philosophy is not exclusively concerned with moksha. They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation, resulting in numerous schools that disagreed with each other. Their ancient doctrines span

5106-613: The universe as consisting of two realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakriti ('nature'). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualised ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. Samkhya philosophy includes

5180-528: The word Hindu is an exonym historically used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent . Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies. Examples of such schools include: Pāśupata Śaiva , Śaiva siddhānta , Pratyabhijña , Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava . Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions, which are nevertheless found in

5254-565: The word used for philosophy is Darshana ( Sanskrit : दर्शन; meaning: "viewpoint or perspective"), from the Sanskrit root 'दृश' ( drish ) meaning 'to see, to experience'. The schools of thought or Darshanas within Hindu philosophy largely equate to the six ancient orthodox schools: the āstika (Sanskrit : आस्तिक) schools, defined by their acceptance of the Vedas , the oldest collection of Sanskrit texts , as an authoritative source of knowledge. Of these six, Samkhya (सांख्य)

5328-544: Was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradāya ("tradition of Vallabh") or Puṣṭimārga , a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world. That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became

5402-481: Was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins . It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists , and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy. There are six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought. Each is called a darśana , and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each āstika darśana also accepts the premise that Atman (eternal Self) exists. The āstika schools of philosophy are: Schools that do not accept

5476-482: Was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them

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