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89-684: SP/k is a programming language developed circa 1974 by R.C. Holt , D.B. Wortman , D.T. Barnard and J.R. Cordy as a subset of the PL/I programming language designed for teaching programming. It was used for about a decade at over 40 universities, schools, and research laboratories in Canada and the United States. SP/k was one of the first languages specifically designed to encourage structured programming . The features of SP/k were chosen to encourage structured problem solving by computers, to make
178-426: A compiler . An interpreter directly executes the source code, while a compiler produces an executable program. Computer architecture has strongly influenced the design of programming languages, with the most common type ( imperative languages —which implement operations in a specified order) developed to perform well on the popular von Neumann architecture . While early programming languages were closely tied to
267-404: A grammar that controlled the usage of descriptive elements. Scribe influenced the development of Generalized Markup Language (later SGML), and is a direct ancestor to HTML and LaTeX . In the early 1980s, the idea that markup should focus on the structural aspects of a document and leave the visual presentation of that structure to the interpreter led to the creation of SGML . The language
356-406: A heap and automatic garbage collection . For the next decades, Lisp dominated artificial intelligence applications. In 1978, another functional language, ML , introduced inferred types and polymorphic parameters . After ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language) was released in 1958 and 1960, it became the standard in computing literature for describing algorithms . Although its commercial success
445-400: A logic called a type system . Other forms of static analyses like data flow analysis may also be part of static semantics. Programming languages such as Java and C# have definite assignment analysis , a form of data flow analysis, as part of their respective static semantics. Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example,
534-514: A schema ). This allowed authors to create and use any markup they wished, selecting tags that made the most sense to them and were named in their own natural languages, while also allowing automated verification. Thus, SGML is properly a meta-language , and many particular markup languages are derived from it. From the late '80s onward, most substantial new markup languages have been based on the SGML system, including for example TEI and DocBook . SGML
623-447: A data type whose elements, in many languages, must consist of a single type of fixed length. Other languages define arrays as references to data stored elsewhere and support elements of varying types. Depending on the programming language, sequences of multiple characters, called strings , may be supported as arrays of characters or their own primitive type . Strings may be of fixed or variable length, which enables greater flexibility at
712-417: A descriptive markup system on top of TeX, and is widely used both among the scientific community and the publishing industry. The first language to make a clean distinction between structure and presentation was Scribe , developed by Brian Reid and described in his doctoral thesis in 1980. Scribe was revolutionary in a number of ways, introducing the idea of styles separated from the marked-up document, and
801-422: A key goal, and without input from standards organizations, aimed at allowing authors to create formatted text via web browsers , for example in wikis and in web forums . These are sometimes called lightweight markup languages . Markdown , BBCode , and the markup language used by Misplaced Pages are examples of such languages. The first well-known public presentation of markup languages in computer text processing
890-476: A markup-language-based format. Another major publishing standard is TeX , created and refined by Donald Knuth in the 1970s and '80s. TeX concentrated on the detailed layout of text and font descriptions to typeset mathematical books. This required Knuth to spend considerable time investigating the art of typesetting . TeX is mainly used in academia , where it is a de facto standard in many scientific disciplines. A TeX macro package known as LaTeX provides
979-422: A meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false: The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation *p >> 4 has no meaning for a value having a complex type and p->im is not defined because the value of p is the null pointer ): If the type declaration on the first line were omitted,
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#17327727079601068-584: A memo proposing an Internet -based hypertext system, then specified HTML and wrote the browser and server software in the last part of 1990. The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called "HTML Tags", first mentioned on the Internet by Berners-Lee in late 1991. It describes 18 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML. Except for the hyperlink tag, these were strongly influenced by SGMLguid , an in-house SGML -based documentation format at CERN , and very similar to
1157-454: A performance cost. Programming language theory is the subfield of computer science that studies the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages. Programming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are used for interaction between people, while programming languages are designed to allow humans to communicate instructions to machines. The term computer language
1246-434: A proper name, defined term, or another special item, the markup may be inserted between the characters of the sentence. The noun markup is derived from the traditional publishing practice called "marking up" a manuscript , which involves adding handwritten annotations in the form of conventional symbolic printer 's instructions — in the margins and the text of a paper or a printed manuscript. For centuries, this task
1335-465: A tag such as "h1" (header level 1) might be presented in a large bold sans-serif typeface in an article, or it might be underscored in a monospaced (typewriter-style) document – or it might simply not change the presentation at all. In contrast, the i tag in HTML 4 is an example of presentational markup, which is generally used to specify a particular characteristic of the text without specifying
1424-526: A taxonomic designation or a phrase in another language. The change was made to ease the transition from HTML 4 to HTML 5 as smoothly as possible so that deprecated uses of presentational elements would preserve the most likely intended semantics. The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) has published extensive guidelines for how to encode texts of interest in the humanities and social sciences, developed through years of international cooperative work. These guidelines are used by projects encoding historical documents,
1513-404: A way that it is also an SGML document, and existing SGML users and software could switch to XML fairly easily. However, XML eliminated many of the more complex features of SGML to simplify implementation environments such as documents and publications. It appeared to strike a happy medium between simplicity and flexibility, as well as supporting very robust schema definition and validation tools, and
1602-497: Is a considerable blurring of the lines between the types of markup. In modern word-processing systems, presentational markup is often saved in descriptive-markup-oriented systems such as XML , and then processed procedurally by implementations . The programming in procedural-markup systems, such as TeX , may be used to create higher-level markup systems that are more descriptive in nature, such as LaTeX . In recent years, several markup languages have been developed with ease of use as
1691-406: Is a set of allowable values and operations that can be performed on these values. Each programming language's type system defines which data types exist, the type of an expression , and how type equivalence and type compatibility function in the language. According to type theory , a language is fully typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation
1780-421: Is a system of notation for writing computer programs . Programming languages are described in terms of their syntax (form) and semantics (meaning), usually defined by a formal language . Languages usually provide features such as a type system , variables , and mechanisms for error handling . An implementation of a programming language is required in order to execute programs, namely an interpreter or
1869-415: Is allowed, the fewer type errors can be detected. Early programming languages often supported only built-in, numeric types such as the integer (signed and unsigned) and floating point (to support operations on real numbers that are not integers). Most programming languages support multiple sizes of floats (often called float and double ) and integers depending on the size and precision required by
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#17327727079601958-419: Is applicable. In contrast, an untyped language, such as most assembly languages , allows any operation to be performed on any data, generally sequences of bits of various lengths. In practice, while few languages are fully typed, most offer a degree of typing. Because different types (such as integers and floats ) represent values differently, unexpected results will occur if one type is used when another
2047-568: Is combined with the content of the document in a way to facilitate use by humans and computer programs. The idea and terminology evolved from the "marking up" of paper manuscripts (e.g., with revision instructions by editors), traditionally written with a red pen or blue pencil on authors' manuscripts. Older markup languages, which typically focus on typography and presentation, include Troff , TeX , and LaTeX . Scribe and most modern markup languages, such as XML , identify document components (for example headings, paragraphs, and tables), with
2136-469: Is expected. Type checking will flag this error, usually at compile time (runtime type checking is more costly). With strong typing , type errors can always be detected unless variables are explicitly cast to a different type. Weak typing occurs when languages allow implicit casting—for example, to enable operations between variables of different types without the programmer making an explicit type conversion. The more cases in which this type coercion
2225-637: Is more commonly seen today as the "father" of markup languages. Goldfarb hit upon the basic idea while working on a primitive document management system intended for law firms in 1969, and helped invent IBM GML later that same year. GML was first publicly disclosed in 1973. In 1975, Goldfarb moved from Cambridge, Massachusetts to Silicon Valley and became a product planner at the IBM Almaden Research Center . There, he convinced IBM's executives to deploy GML commercially in 1978 as part of IBM's Document Composition Facility product, and it
2314-403: Is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research goes into formal semantics of programming languages , which allows execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia. A data type
2403-444: Is sometimes used interchangeably with "programming language". However, usage of these terms varies among authors. In one usage, programming languages are described as a subset of computer languages. Similarly, the term "computer language" may be used in contrast to the term "programming language" to describe languages used in computing but not considered programming languages – for example, markup languages . Some authors restrict
2492-474: Is stored. The simplest user-defined type is an ordinal type whose values can be mapped onto the set of positive integers. Since the mid-1980s, most programming languages also support abstract data types , in which the representation of the data and operations are hidden from the user , who can only access an interface . The benefits of data abstraction can include increased reliability, reduced complexity, less potential for name collision , and allowing
2581-614: Is that all attribute values in tags must be quoted. Both these differences are commonly criticized as verbose but also praised because they make it far easier to detect, localize, and repair errors. Finally, all tag and attribute names within the XHTML namespace must be lowercase to be valid. HTML, on the other hand, was case-insensitive. Many XML-based applications now exist, including the Resource Description Framework as RDF/XML , XForms , DocBook , SOAP , and
2670-442: Is the potential for errors to go undetected. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with functional languages such as Haskell and ML . With dynamic typing, the type is not attached to the variable but only the value encoded in it. A single variable can be reused for a value of a different type. Although this provides more flexibility to the programmer, it is at the cost of lower reliability and less ability for
2759-558: Is typical for the internal representations that programs use to work with marked-up documents. However, embedded or "inline" markup is much more common elsewhere. Here, for example, is a small section of text marked up in HTML: The codes enclosed in angle-brackets <like this> are markup instructions (known as tags), while the text between these instructions is the actual text of the document. The codes h1 , p , and em are examples of semantic markup, in that they describe
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2848-402: Is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a case statement are distinct. Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that subroutine calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in
2937-481: Is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus–Naur form (for grammatical structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp : This grammar specifies the following: The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: 12345 , () and (a b c232 (1)) . Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per
3026-557: The CPU that performs instructions on data is separate, and data must be piped back and forth to the CPU. The central elements in these languages are variables, assignment , and iteration , which is more efficient than recursion on these machines. Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. The birth of programming languages in
3115-496: The International Organization for Standardization committee that created SGML , the first standard descriptive markup language. Book designer Stanley Rice published speculation along similar lines in 1970. Brian Reid , in his 1980 dissertation at Carnegie Mellon University , developed the theory and a working implementation of descriptive markup in actual use. However, IBM researcher Charles Goldfarb
3204-486: The Web Ontology Language (OWL). For a partial list of these, see List of XML markup languages . A common feature of many markup languages is that they intermix the text of a document with markup instructions in the same data stream or file. This is not necessary; it is possible to isolate markup from text content, using pointers, offsets, IDs, or other methods to coordinate the two. Such "standoff markup"
3293-410: The hardware , over time they have developed more abstraction to hide implementation details for greater simplicity. Thousands of programming languages—often classified as imperative, functional , logic , or object-oriented —have been developed for a wide variety of uses. Many aspects of programming language design involve tradeoffs—for example, exception handling simplifies error handling, but at
3382-455: The 1950s was stimulated by the desire to make a universal programming language suitable for all machines and uses, avoiding the need to write code for different computers. By the early 1960s, the idea of a universal language was rejected due to the differing requirements of the variety of purposes for which code was written. Desirable qualities of programming languages include readability, writability, and reliability. These features can reduce
3471-487: The code is reached; this is called finalization. There is a tradeoff between increased ability to handle exceptions and reduced performance. For example, even though array index errors are common C does not check them for performance reasons. Although programmers can write code to catch user-defined exceptions, this can clutter a program. Standard libraries in some languages, such as C, use their return values to indicate an exception. Some languages and their compilers have
3560-479: The constructs of preceding subsets, forming a stepwise system for teaching computer programming. Each subset is precisely defined and self-contained, and can be learned or implemented without the following subsets. This allows for various levels of programming education. The design and philosophy of SP/k was a strong influence on the Turing programming language . Programming language A programming language
3649-402: The cost of increased storage space and more complexity. Other data types that may be supported include lists , associative (unordered) arrays accessed via keys, records in which data is mapped to names in an ordered structure, and tuples —similar to records but without names for data fields. Pointers store memory addresses, typically referencing locations on the heap where other data
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3738-408: The cost of readability. Natural-language programming has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger W. Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs. Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of
3827-432: The cost of training programmers in a language, the amount of time needed to write and maintain programs in the language, the cost of compiling the code, and increase runtime performance. Programming language design often involves tradeoffs. For example, features to improve reliability typically come at the cost of performance. Increased expressivity due to a large number of operators makes writing code easier but comes at
3916-433: The details of the hardware, instead being designed to express algorithms that could be understood more easily by humans. For example, arithmetic expressions could now be written in symbolic notation and later translated into machine code that the hardware could execute. In 1957, Fortran (FORmula TRANslation) was invented. Often considered the first compiled high-level programming language, Fortran has remained in use into
4005-476: The document text so that typesetting software could format the text according to the editor's specifications. It was a trial and error iterative process to get a document printed correctly. Availability of WYSIWYG ("what you see is what you get") publishing software supplanted much use of these languages among casual users, though serious publishing work still uses markup to specify the non-visual structure of texts, and WYSIWYG editors now usually save documents in
4094-401: The expectation that technology, such as stylesheets , will be used to apply formatting or other processing. Some markup languages, such as the widely used HTML , have pre-defined presentation semantics , meaning that their specifications prescribe some aspects of how to present the structured data on particular media. HTML, like DocBook , Open eBook , JATS , and many others, is based on
4183-461: The first programming languages. The earliest computers were programmed in first-generation programming languages (1GLs), machine language (simple instructions that could be directly executed by the processor). This code was very difficult to debug and was not portable between different computer systems. In order to improve the ease of programming, assembly languages (or second-generation programming languages —2GLs) were invented, diverging from
4272-599: The grammar. Many of the HTML text elements are found in the 1988 ISO technical report TR 9537 Techniques for using SGML , which in turn covers the features of early text formatting languages such as that used by the RUNOFF command developed in the early 1960s for the CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system. These formatting commands were derived from those used by typesetters to manually format documents. Steven DeRose argues that HTML's use of descriptive markup (and
4361-415: The idea. Markup language A markup language is a text-encoding system which specifies the structure and formatting of a document and potentially the relationships among its parts. Markup can control the display of a document or enrich its content to facilitate automated processing. A markup language is a set of rules governing what markup information may be included in a document and how it
4450-469: The influence of SGML in particular) was a major factor in the success of the Web, because of the flexibility and extensibility that it enabled. HTML became the main markup language for creating web pages and other information that can be displayed in a web browser and is likely the most used markup language in the world today. XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a meta markup language that is very widely used. XML
4539-446: The intended purpose or the meaning of the text they include. Specifically, h1 means "this is a first-level heading", p means "this is a paragraph", and em means "this is an emphasized word or phrase". A program interpreting such structural markup may apply its own rules or styles for presenting the various pieces of text, using different typefaces, boldness, font size, indentation, color, or other styles, as desired. For example,
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#17327727079604628-402: The invention of the microprocessor , computers in the 1970s became dramatically cheaper. New computers also allowed more user interaction, which was supported by newer programming languages. Lisp , implemented in 1958, was the first functional programming language. Unlike Fortran, it supported recursion and conditional expressions , and it also introduced dynamic memory management on
4717-476: The language easy to learn and use, to eliminate confusing and redundant constructs, and to make the language easy to compile. The resulting language was suitable for introducing programming concepts used in various applications, including business data processing, scientific calculations and non-numeric computation. SP/k is actually a sequence of language subsets called SP/1, SP/2, ... SP/8. Each subset introduces new programming language constructs while retaining all
4806-429: The language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior . Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it. Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign
4895-417: The languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats. The first programmable computers were invented at the end of the 1940s, and with them,
4984-511: The machine language to make programs easier to understand for humans, although they did not increase portability. Initially, hardware resources were scarce and expensive, while human resources were cheaper. Therefore, cumbersome languages that were time-consuming to use, but were closer to the hardware for higher efficiency were favored. The introduction of high-level programming languages ( third-generation programming languages —3GLs)—revolutionized programming. These languages abstracted away
5073-425: The markup meta-languages SGML and XML . That is, SGML and XML allow designers to specify particular schemas , which determine which elements, attributes, and other features are permitted, and where. A key characteristic of most markup languages is that they allow intermingling markup with document content such as text and pictures. For example, if a few words in a sentence need to be emphasized, or identified as
5162-400: The meaning of languages, as opposed to their form ( syntax ). Static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms. For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every identifier is declared before it
5251-415: The most noticeable differences between HTML and XHTML is the rule that all tags must be closed : empty HTML tags such as <br> must either be closed with a regular end-tag, or replaced by a special form: <br /> (the space before the ' / ' on the end tag is optional, but frequently used because it enables some pre-XML Web browsers, and SGML parsers, to accept the tag). Another difference
5340-639: The new programming languages uses static typing while a few numbers of new languages use dynamic typing like Ring and Julia . Some of the new programming languages are classified as visual programming languages like Scratch , LabVIEW and PWCT . Also, some of these languages mix between textual and visual programming usage like Ballerina . Also, this trend lead to developing projects that help in developing new VPLs like Blockly by Google . Many game engines like Unreal and Unity added support for visual scripting too. Every programming language includes fundamental elements for describing data and
5429-455: The operations or transformations applied to them, such as adding two numbers or selecting an item from a collection. These elements are governed by syntactic and semantic rules that define their structure and meaning, respectively. A programming language's surface form is known as its syntax . Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On
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#17327727079605518-436: The option of turning on and off error handling capability, either temporarily or permanently. One of the most important influences on programming language design has been computer architecture . Imperative languages , the most commonly used type, were designed to perform well on von Neumann architecture , the most common computer architecture. In von Neumann architecture, the memory stores both data and instructions, while
5607-436: The order of execution of key instructions via the use of semaphores , controlling access to shared data via monitor , or enabling message passing between threads. Many programming languages include exception handlers, a section of code triggered by runtime errors that can deal with them in two main ways: Some programming languages support dedicating a block of code to run regardless of whether an exception occurs before
5696-483: The other hand, some programming languages are graphical , using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program. The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or hard-coded in a reference implementation ). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax. The programming language syntax
5785-442: The parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an undecidable problem , and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution. In contrast to Lisp's macro system and Perl's BEGIN blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements and do not require code execution. The term semantics refers to
5874-585: The program would trigger an error on the undefined variable p during compilation. However, the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information. The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the Chomsky hierarchy . The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are context-free grammars . Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during
5963-489: The programmer specifies a desired result and allows the interpreter to decide how to achieve it. During the 1980s, the invention of the personal computer transformed the roles for which programming languages were used. New languages introduced in the 1980s included C++, a superset of C that can compile C programs but also supports classes and inheritance . Ada and other new languages introduced support for concurrency . The Japanese government invested heavily into
6052-417: The programmer. Storing an integer in a type that is too small to represent it leads to integer overflow . The most common way of representing negative numbers with signed types is twos complement , although ones complement is also used. Other common types include Boolean —which is either true or false—and character —traditionally one byte , sufficient to represent all ASCII characters. Arrays are
6141-420: The programming language to check for errors. Some languages allow variables of a union type to which any type of value can be assigned, in an exception to their usual static typing rules. In computing, multiple instructions can be executed simultaneously. Many programming languages support instruction-level and subprogram-level concurrency. By the twenty-first century, additional processing power on computers
6230-458: The reason for that appearance. In this case, the i element dictates the use of an italic typeface. However, in HTML 5 , this element has been repurposed with a more semantic usage: to denote a span of text in an alternate voice or mood, or otherwise offset from the normal prose in a manner indicating a different quality of text . For example, it is appropriate to use the i element to indicate
6319-549: The sample schema in the SGML standard. Eleven of these elements still exist in HTML 4. Berners-Lee considered HTML an SGML application. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) formally defined it as such with the mid-1993 publication of the first proposal for an HTML specification: "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)" Internet-Draft Archived 2017-01-03 at the Wayback Machine by Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly , which included an SGML Document Type Definition to define
6408-404: The semantics may define the strategy by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which control structures conditionally execute statements . The dynamic semantics (also known as execution semantics ) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language
6497-686: The so-called fifth-generation languages that added support for concurrency to logic programming constructs, but these languages were outperformed by other concurrency-supporting languages. Due to the rapid growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web in the 1990s, new programming languages were introduced to support Web pages and networking . Java , based on C++ and designed for increased portability across systems and security, enjoyed large-scale success because these features are essential for many Internet applications. Another development
6586-525: The term "programming language" to Turing complete languages. Most practical programming languages are Turing complete, and as such are equivalent in what programs they can compute. Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming abstract machines and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources. John C. Reynolds emphasizes that formal specification languages are just as much programming languages as are
6675-401: The twenty-first century. Around 1960, the first mainframes —general purpose computers—were developed, although they could only be operated by professionals and the cost was extreme. The data and instructions were input by punch cards , meaning that no input could be added while the program was running. The languages developed at this time therefore are designed for minimal interaction. After
6764-424: The twenty-first century. C allows access to lower-level machine operations more than other contemporary languages. Its power and efficiency, generated in part with flexible pointer operations, comes at the cost of making it more difficult to write correct code. Prolog , designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language, communicating with a computer using formal logic notation. With logic programming,
6853-475: The underlying data structure to be changed without the client needing to alter its code. In static typing , all expressions have their types determined before a program executes, typically at compile-time. Most widely used, statically typed programming languages require the types of variables to be specified explicitly. In some languages, types are implicit; one form of this is when the compiler can infer types based on context. The downside of implicit typing
6942-452: The works of particular scholars, periods, genres, and so on. While the idea of markup language originated with text documents, there is increasing use of markup languages in the presentation of other types of information, including playlists , vector graphics , web services , content syndication , and user interfaces . Most of these are XML applications because XML is a well-defined and extensible language. The use of XML has also led to
7031-476: Was service-oriented programming , designed to exploit distributed systems whose components are connected by a network. Services are similar to objects in object-oriented programming, but run on a separate process. C# and F# cross-pollinated ideas between imperative and functional programming. After 2010, several new languages— Rust , Go , Swift , Zig and Carbon —competed for the performance-critical software for which C had historically been used. Most of
7120-512: Was developed by a committee chaired by Goldfarb. It incorporated ideas from many different sources, including Tunnicliffe's project, GenCode. Sharon Adler, Anders Berglund, and James A. Marke were also key members of the SGML committee. SGML specified a syntax for including the markup in documents, as well as one for separately describing what tags were allowed, and where (the Document Type Definition ( DTD ), later known as
7209-522: Was developed by the World Wide Web Consortium in a committee created and chaired by Jon Bosak . The main purpose of XML was to simplify SGML by focusing on a particular problem — documents on the Internet. XML remains a meta-language like SGML, allowing users to create any tags needed (hence "extensible") and then describing those tags and their permitted uses. XML adoption was helped because every XML document can be written in such
7298-664: Was done primarily by skilled typographers known as "markup men" or "markers" who marked up text to indicate what typeface , style, and size should be applied to each part, and then passed the manuscript to others for typesetting by hand or machine. The markup was also commonly applied by editors, proofreaders , publishers, and graphic designers, and indeed by document authors, all of whom might also mark other things, such as corrections, changes, etc. There are three main general categories of electronic markup, articulated in Coombs, Renear, and DeRose (1987), and Bray (2003). There
7387-407: Was increasingly coming from the use of additional processors, which requires programmers to design software that makes use of multiple processors simultaneously to achieve improved performance. Interpreted languages such as Python and Ruby do not support the concurrent use of multiple processors. Other programming languages do support managing data shared between different threads by controlling
7476-550: Was limited, most popular imperative languages—including C , Pascal , Ada , C++ , Java , and C# —are directly or indirectly descended from ALGOL 60. Among its innovations adopted by later programming languages included greater portability and the first use of context-free , BNF grammar. Simula , the first language to support object-oriented programming (including subtypes , dynamic dispatch , and inheritance ), also descends from ALGOL and achieved commercial success. C, another ALGOL descendant, has sustained popularity into
7565-419: Was made by William W. Tunnicliffe at a conference in 1967, although he preferred to call it generic coding. It can be seen as a response to the emergence of programs such as RUNOFF that each used their own control notations, often specific to the target typesetting device. In the 1970s, Tunnicliffe led the development of a standard called GenCode for the publishing industry and later was the first chairman of
7654-631: Was promulgated as an International Standard by International Organization for Standardization , ISO 8879, in 1986. SGML found wide acceptance and use in fields with very large-scale documentation requirements. However, many found it cumbersome and difficult to learn — a side effect of its design attempting to do too much and being too flexible. For example, SGML made end tags (or start-tags, or even both) optional in certain contexts, because its developers thought markup would be done manually by overworked support staff who would appreciate saving keystrokes . In 1989, computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee wrote
7743-735: Was rapidly adopted for many other uses. XML is now widely used for communicating data between applications, for serializing program data, for hardware communications protocols, vector graphics, and many other uses as well as documents. From January 2000 until HTML 5 was released, all W3C Recommendations for HTML have been based on XML, using the abbreviation XHTML ( Ex tensible H yper T ext M arkup L anguage). The language specification requires that XHTML Web documents be well-formed XML documents. This allows for more rigorous and robust documents, by avoiding many syntax errors which historically led to incompatible browser behaviors, while still using document components that are familiar with HTML. One of
7832-430: Was that of dynamically typed scripting languages — Python , JavaScript , PHP , and Ruby —designed to quickly produce small programs that coordinate existing applications . Due to their integration with HTML , they have also been used for building web pages hosted on servers . During the 2000s, there was a slowdown in the development of new programming languages that achieved widespread popularity. One innovation
7921-623: Was widely used in business within a few years. SGML, which was based on both GML and GenCode, was an ISO project worked on by Goldfarb beginning in 1974. Goldfarb eventually became chair of the SGML committee. SGML was first released by ISO as the ISO 8879 standard in October 1986. Some early examples of computer markup languages available outside the publishing industry can be found in typesetting tools on Unix systems such as troff and nroff . In these systems, formatting commands were inserted into
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