SPSS Statistics is a statistical software suite developed by IBM for data management , advanced analytics, multivariate analysis , business intelligence , and criminal investigation . Long produced by SPSS Inc. , it was acquired by IBM in 2009. Versions of the software released since 2015 have the brand name IBM SPSS Statistics .
112-864: The software name originally stood for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences ( SPSS ), reflecting the original market, then later changed to Statistical Product and Service Solutions . SPSS is a widely used program for statistical analysis in social science . It is also used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government, education researchers, industries, marketing organizations, data miners, and others. The original SPSS manual (Nie, Bent & Hull, 1970) has been described as one of "sociology's most influential books" for allowing ordinary researchers to do their own statistical analysis. In addition to statistical analysis, data management (case selection, file reshaping and creating derived data) and data documentation (a metadata dictionary
224-464: A dropout color which can be easily removed by the OCR system. Palm OS used a special set of glyphs, known as Graffiti , which are similar to printed English characters but simplified or modified for easier recognition on the platform's computationally limited hardware. Users would need to learn how to write these special glyphs. Zone-based OCR restricts the image to a specific part of a document. This
336-469: A population , for example by testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is sampled from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be contrasted with descriptive statistics . Descriptive statistics is solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a larger population. Consider independent identically distributed (IID) random variables with
448-452: A "Statistical Machine" for searching microfilm archives using an optical code recognition system. In 1931, he was granted US Patent number 1,838,389 for the invention. The patent was acquired by IBM . In 1974, Ray Kurzweil started the company Kurzweil Computer Products, Inc. and continued development of omni- font OCR, which could recognize text printed in virtually any font. (Kurzweil is often credited with inventing omni-font OCR, but it
560-406: A Python or a VB.NET program using supplied "plug-ins". (From version 20 onwards, these two scripting facilities, as well as many scripts, are included on the installation media and are normally installed by default.) SPSS Statistics places constraints on internal file structure, data types , data processing , and matching files, which together considerably simplify programming. SPSS datasets have
672-439: A character error rate of 1% (99% accuracy) may result in an error rate of 5% or worse if the measurement is based on whether each whole word was recognized with no incorrect letters. Using a large enough dataset is important in a neural-network-based handwriting recognition solutions. On the other hand, producing natural datasets is very complicated and time-consuming. An example of the difficulties inherent in digitizing old text
784-495: A command file of SPSS commands and either a raw input file of fixed-format data with a single record type, or a 'getfile' of data saved by a previous run. To save precious computer time an 'edit' run could be done to check command syntax without analysing the data. From version 10 (SPSS-X) in 1983, data files could contain multiple record types. Prior to SPSS 16.0, different versions of SPSS were available for Windows , Mac OS X and Unix . SPSS Statistics version 13.0 for Mac OS X
896-418: A decade earlier in 1795. The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in three stages. The first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work of Francis Galton and Karl Pearson , who transformed statistics into a rigorous mathematical discipline used for analysis, not just in science, but in industry and politics as well. Galton's contributions included introducing
1008-615: A division of UNICOM Global , and merged into the integrated software suite UNICOM Intelligence (survey design, survey deployment, data collection, data management and reporting). IDA (Interactive Data Analysis) was a software package that originated at what was formerly the National Opinion Research Center ( NORC ), at the University of Chicago . Initially offered on the HP-2000 , somewhat later, under
1120-458: A given probability distribution : standard statistical inference and estimation theory defines a random sample as the random vector given by the column vector of these IID variables. The population being examined is described by a probability distribution that may have unknown parameters. A statistic is a random variable that is a function of the random sample, but not a function of unknown parameters . The probability distribution of
1232-484: A given probability of containing the true value is to use a credible interval from Bayesian statistics : this approach depends on a different way of interpreting what is meant by "probability" , that is as a Bayesian probability . In principle confidence intervals can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. An interval can be asymmetrical because it works as lower or upper bound for a parameter (left-sided interval or right sided interval), but it can also be asymmetrical because
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#17327651868231344-471: A given situation and carry the computation, several methods have been proposed: the method of moments , the maximum likelihood method, the least squares method and the more recent method of estimating equations . Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the development of a null hypothesis which is usually (but not necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or that no change occurred over time. The best illustration for
1456-469: A list of optical character recognition software, see Comparison of optical character recognition software . OCR accuracy can be increased if the output is constrained by a lexicon – a list of words that are allowed to occur in a document. This might be, for example, all the words in the English language, or a more technical lexicon for a specific field. This technique can be problematic if
1568-555: A mathematical discipline only took shape at the very end of the 17th century, particularly in Jacob Bernoulli 's posthumous work Ars Conjectandi . This was the first book where the realm of games of chance and the realm of the probable (which concerned opinion, evidence, and argument) were combined and submitted to mathematical analysis. The method of least squares was first described by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805, though Carl Friedrich Gauss presumably made use of it
1680-1033: A meaningful order to those values, and permit any order-preserving transformation. Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined, but the zero value is arbitrary (as in the case with longitude and temperature measurements in Celsius or Fahrenheit ), and permit any linear transformation. Ratio measurements have both a meaningful zero value and the distances between different measurements defined, and permit any rescaling transformation. Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are grouped together as categorical variables , whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as quantitative variables , which can be either discrete or continuous , due to their numerical nature. Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated with data type in computer science, in that dichotomous categorical variables may be represented with
1792-807: A method of statistical inference, and publication ready charts, such as powerful new charting capabilities, including new default templates and the ability to share with Microsoft Office applications. SPSS was released in its first version in 1968 as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) after being developed by Norman H. Nie , Dale H. Bent, and C. Hadlai Hull. Those principals incorporated as SPSS Inc. in 1975. Early versions of SPSS Statistics were written in Fortran and designed for batch processing on mainframes , including for example IBM and ICL versions, originally using punched cards for data and program input. A processing run read
1904-559: A noun, for example, allowing greater accuracy. The Levenshtein Distance algorithm has also been used in OCR post-processing to further optimize results from an OCR API. In recent years, the major OCR technology providers began to tweak OCR systems to deal more efficiently with specific types of input. Beyond an application-specific lexicon, better performance may be had by taking into account business rules, standard expression, or rich information contained in color images. This strategy
2016-499: A novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial. The null hypothesis, H 0 , asserts that the defendant is innocent, whereas the alternative hypothesis, H 1 , asserts that the defendant is guilty. The indictment comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The H 0 (status quo) stands in opposition to H 1 and is maintained unless H 1 is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable doubt". However, "failure to reject H 0 " in this case does not imply innocence, but merely that
2128-404: A population, so results do not fully represent the whole population. Any estimates obtained from the sample only approximate the population value. Confidence intervals allow statisticians to express how closely the sample estimate matches the true value in the whole population. Often they are expressed as 95% confidence intervals. Formally, a 95% confidence interval for a value is a range where, if
2240-412: A problem, it is common practice to start with a population or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics, such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population (an operation called a census ). This may be organized by governmental statistical institutes. Descriptive statistics can be used to summarize
2352-399: A ranked list of candidate characters. Software such as Cuneiform and Tesseract use a two-pass approach to character recognition. The second pass is known as adaptive recognition and uses the letter shapes recognized with high confidence on the first pass to better recognize the remaining letters on the second pass. This is advantageous for unusual fonts or low-quality scans where the font
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#17327651868232464-497: A sample using indexes such as the mean or standard deviation , and inferential statistics , which draw conclusions from data that are subject to random variation (e.g., observational errors, sampling variation). Descriptive statistics are most often concerned with two sets of properties of a distribution (sample or population): central tendency (or location ) seeks to characterize the distribution's central or typical value, while dispersion (or variability ) characterizes
2576-411: A single character) – are still the subject of active research. The MNIST database is commonly used for testing systems' ability to recognize handwritten digits. Accuracy rates can be measured in several ways, and how they are measured can greatly affect the reported accuracy rate. For example, if word context (a lexicon of words) is not used to correct software finding non-existent words,
2688-465: A statistician would use a modified, more structured estimation method (e.g., difference in differences estimation and instrumental variables , among many others) that produce consistent estimators . The basic steps of a statistical experiment are: Experiments on human behavior have special concerns. The famous Hawthorne study examined changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of
2800-637: A test and confidence intervals . Jerzy Neyman in 1934 showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of estimation than purposive (quota) sampling. Today, statistical methods are applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making accurate inferences from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of uncertainty based on statistical methodology. The use of modern computers has expedited large-scale statistical computations and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of active research, for example on
2912-451: A time. Advanced systems capable of producing a high degree of accuracy for most fonts are now common, and with support for a variety of image file format inputs. Some systems are capable of reproducing formatted output that closely approximates the original page including images, columns, and other non-textual components. Early optical character recognition may be traced to technologies involving telegraphy and creating reading devices for
3024-399: A transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer." A descriptive statistic (in the count noun sense) is a summary statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a collection of information , while descriptive statistics in the mass noun sense is the process of using and analyzing those statistics. Descriptive statistics
3136-487: A two-dimensional table structure, where the rows typically represent cases (such as individuals or households) and the columns represent measurements (such as age, sex, or household income). Only two data types are defined: numeric and text (or "string"). All data processing occurs sequentially case-by-case through the file (dataset). Files can be matched one-to-one and one-to-many , but not many-to-many . In addition to that cases-by-variables structure and processing, there
3248-419: A value accurately rejecting the null hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the p-value ). The standard approach is to test a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis. A critical region is the set of values of the estimator that leads to refuting the null hypothesis. The probability of type I error is therefore the probability that the estimator belongs to the critical region given that null hypothesis
3360-527: A variety of graphic image formats ( JPEG , PNG , BMP and EMF ). Several variants of SPSS Statistics exist. SPSS Statistics Gradpacks are highly discounted versions sold only to students. SPSS Statistics Server is a version of the software with a client/server architecture . Add-on packages can enhance the base software with additional features (examples include complex samples , which can adjust for clustered and stratified samples, and custom tables , which can create publication-ready tables). SPSS Statistics
3472-479: Is a common method of digitizing printed texts so that they can be electronically edited, searched, stored more compactly, displayed online, and used in machine processes such as cognitive computing , machine translation , (extracted) text-to-speech , key data and text mining . OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition , artificial intelligence and computer vision . Early versions needed to be trained with images of each character, and worked on one font at
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3584-413: Is a separate Matrix session where one can process data as matrices using matrix and linear algebra operations. The graphical user interface has two views which can be toggled. The 'Data View' shows a spreadsheet view of the cases (rows) and variables (columns). Unlike spreadsheets, the data cells can only contain numbers or text, and formulas cannot be stored in these cells. The 'Variable View' displays
3696-428: Is accomplished relatively simply by aligning the image to a uniform grid based on where vertical grid lines will least often intersect black areas. For proportional fonts , more sophisticated techniques are needed because whitespace between letters can sometimes be greater than that between words, and vertical lines can intersect more than one character. There are two basic types of core OCR algorithm, which may produce
3808-575: Is another type of observational study in which people with and without the outcome of interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their exposure histories are collected. Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of levels of measurement . The psychophysicist Stanley Smith Stevens defined nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal measurements do not have meaningful rank order among values, and permit any one-to-one (injective) transformation. Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values, but have
3920-465: Is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions. "The relationship between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations. Whether or not
4032-486: Is available under either an annual or a monthly subscription license. Version 25 of SPSS Statistics launched on August 8, 2017. This added new and advanced statistics, such as random effects solution results (GENLINMIXED), robust standard errors (GLM/UNIANOVA), and profile plots with error bars within the Advanced Statistics and Custom Tables add-on. V25 also includes new Bayesian statistics capabilities,
4144-548: Is called "Application-Oriented OCR" or "Customized OCR", and has been applied to OCR of license plates , invoices , screenshots , ID cards , driver's licenses , and automobile manufacturing . The New York Times has adapted the OCR technology into a proprietary tool they entitle Document Helper , that enables their interactive news team to accelerate the processing of documents that need to be reviewed. They note that it enables them to process what amounts to as many as 5,400 pages per hour in preparation for reporters to review
4256-834: Is called error term, disturbance or more simply noise. Both linear regression and non-linear regression are addressed in polynomial least squares , which also describes the variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (y axis) as a function of the independent variable (x axis) and the deviations (errors, noise, disturbances) from the estimated (fitted) curve. Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic ( bias ), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also be important. The presence of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. Most studies only sample part of
4368-597: Is conventional to begin with a statistical population or a statistical model to be studied. Populations can be diverse groups of people or objects such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Statistics deals with every aspect of data, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments . When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing specific experiment designs and survey samples . Representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can reasonably extend from
4480-428: Is distinguished from inferential statistics (or inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aims to summarize a sample , rather than use the data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. Statistical inference is the process of using data analysis to deduce properties of an underlying probability distribution . Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of
4592-413: Is distorted (e.g. blurred or faded). As of December 2016 , modern OCR software includes Google Docs OCR, ABBYY FineReader , and Transym. Others like OCRopus and Tesseract use neural networks which are trained to recognize whole lines of text instead of focusing on single characters. A technique known as iterative OCR automatically crops a document into sections based on the page layout. OCR
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4704-411: Is generally an offline process, which analyses a static document. There are cloud based services which provide an online OCR API service. Handwriting movement analysis can be used as input to handwriting recognition . Instead of merely using the shapes of glyphs and words, this technique is able to capture motion, such as the order in which segments are drawn, the direction, and the pattern of putting
4816-486: Is often referred to as Template OCR . Crowdsourcing humans to perform the character recognition can quickly process images like computer-driven OCR, but with higher accuracy for recognizing images than that obtained via computers. Practical systems include the Amazon Mechanical Turk and reCAPTCHA . The National Library of Finland has developed an online interface for users to correct OCRed texts in
4928-418: Is one that explores the association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a cohort study , and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group. A case-control study
5040-451: Is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two data sets, an alternative to an idealized null hypothesis of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: Type I errors (null hypothesis
5152-446: Is provided as a Universal binary , making it fully compatible with both PowerPC and Intel-based Mac hardware. SPSS Inc announced on July 28, 2009, that it was being acquired by IBM for US$ 1.2 billion. Because of a dispute about ownership of the name "SPSS", between 2009 and 2010, the product was referred to as PASW (Predictive Analytics SoftWare). As of January 2010, it became "SPSS: An IBM Company". Complete transfer of business to IBM
5264-408: Is rejected when it is in fact true, giving a "false positive") and Type II errors (null hypothesis fails to be rejected when it is in fact false, giving a "false negative"). Multiple problems have come to be associated with this framework, ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to specifying an adequate null hypothesis. Statistical measurement processes are also prone to error in regards to
5376-468: Is stored in the datafile ) are features of the base software. The many features of SPSS Statistics are accessible via pull-down menus or can be programmed with a proprietary 4GL command syntax language . Command syntax programming has the benefits of reproducible output, simplifying repetitive tasks, and handling complex data manipulations and analyses. Additionally, some complex applications can only be programmed in syntax and are not accessible through
5488-608: Is the electronic or mechanical conversion of images of typed, handwritten or printed text into machine-encoded text, whether from a scanned document, a photo of a document, a scene photo (for example the text on signs and billboards in a landscape photo) or from subtitle text superimposed on an image (for example: from a television broadcast). Widely used as a form of data entry from printed paper data records – whether passport documents, invoices, bank statements , computerized receipts, business cards, mail, printed data, or any suitable documentation – it
5600-434: Is the inability of OCR to differentiate between the " long s " and "f" characters. Web-based OCR systems for recognizing hand-printed text on the fly have become well known as commercial products in recent years (see Tablet PC history ). Accuracy rates of 80% to 90% on neat, clean hand-printed characters can be achieved by pen computing software, but that accuracy rate still translates to dozens of errors per page, making
5712-572: Is then performed on each section individually using variable character confidence level thresholds to maximize page-level OCR accuracy. A patent from the United States Patent Office has been issued for this method. The OCR result can be stored in the standardized ALTO format, a dedicated XML schema maintained by the United States Library of Congress . Other common formats include hOCR and PAGE XML. For
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#17327651868235824-457: Is to a proprietary file format (*.spv file, supporting pivot tables ) for which, in addition to the in-package viewer, a stand-alone reader can be downloaded. The proprietary output can be exported to text or Microsoft Word , PDF , Excel , and other formats. Alternatively, output can be captured as data (using the OMS command), as text, tab-delimited text, PDF, XLS , HTML , XML , SPSS dataset or
5936-402: Is true ( statistical significance ) and the probability of type II error is the probability that the estimator does not belong to the critical region given that the alternative hypothesis is true. The statistical power of a test is the probability that it correctly rejects the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false. Referring to statistical significance does not necessarily mean that
6048-449: Is widely employed in government, business, and natural and social sciences. The mathematical foundations of statistics developed from discussions concerning games of chance among mathematicians such as Gerolamo Cardano , Blaise Pascal , Pierre de Fermat , and Christiaan Huygens . Although the idea of probability was already examined in ancient and medieval law and philosophy (such as the work of Juan Caramuel ), probability theory as
6160-454: The Amount line of a check (which is always a written-out number) is an example where using a smaller dictionary can increase recognition rates greatly. The shapes of individual cursive characters themselves simply do not contain enough information to accurately (greater than 98%) recognize all handwritten cursive script. Most programs allow users to set "confidence rates". This means that if
6272-765: The Boolean data type , polytomous categorical variables with arbitrarily assigned integers in the integral data type , and continuous variables with the real data type involving floating-point arithmetic . But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented. Other categorizations have been proposed. For example, Mosteller and Tukey (1977) distinguished grades, ranks, counted fractions, counts, amounts, and balances. Nelder (1990) described continuous counts, continuous ratios, count ratios, and categorical modes of data. (See also: Chrisman (1998), van den Berg (1991). ) The issue of whether or not it
6384-487: The Western Electric Company . The researchers were interested in determining whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the assembly line workers. The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in illumination affected productivity. It turned out that productivity indeed improved (under
6496-546: The forecasting , prediction , and estimation of unobserved values either in or associated with the population being studied. It can include extrapolation and interpolation of time series or spatial data , as well as data mining . Mathematical statistics is the application of mathematics to statistics. Mathematical techniques used for this include mathematical analysis , linear algebra , stochastic analysis , differential equations , and measure-theoretic probability theory . Formal discussions on inference date back to
6608-432: The limit to the true value of such parameter. Other desirable properties for estimators include: UMVUE estimators that have the lowest variance for all possible values of the parameter to be estimated (this is usually an easier property to verify than efficiency) and consistent estimators which converges in probability to the true value of such parameter. This still leaves the question of how to obtain estimators in
6720-719: The mathematicians and cryptographers of the Islamic Golden Age between the 8th and 13th centuries. Al-Khalil (717–786) wrote the Book of Cryptographic Messages , which contains one of the first uses of permutations and combinations , to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels. Al-Kindi 's Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages gave a detailed description of how to use frequency analysis to decipher encrypted messages, providing an early example of statistical inference for decoding . Ibn Adlan (1187–1268) later made an important contribution on
6832-469: The 2000s, OCR was made available online as a service (WebOCR), in a cloud computing environment, and in mobile applications like real-time translation of foreign-language signs on a smartphone . With the advent of smartphones and smartglasses , OCR can be used in internet connected mobile device applications that extract text captured using the device's camera. These devices that do not have built-in OCR functionality will typically use an OCR API to extract
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#17327651868236944-498: The Early Access Program for the next generation of SPSS Statistics for more users and shared more visuals about it. Statistics Statistics (from German : Statistik , orig. "description of a state , a country" ) is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data . In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it
7056-530: The SPSS Conversational Statistical System (SCSS), whose strong point, as with SPSS, was Cross-tabulation. In October, 2020 IBM announced the start of an Early Access Program for the "New SPSS Statistics", codenamed Project NX. It contains "many of your favorite SPSS capabilities presented in a new easy to use interface, with integrated guidance, multiple tabs, improved graphs and much more". In December, 2021, IBM opened up
7168-463: The blind. In 1914, Emanuel Goldberg developed a machine that read characters and converted them into standard telegraph code. Concurrently, Edmund Fournier d'Albe developed the Optophone , a handheld scanner that when moved across a printed page, produced tones that corresponded to specific letters or characters. In the late 1920s and into the 1930s, Emanuel Goldberg developed what he called
7280-439: The collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data , or as a branch of mathematics . Some consider statistics to be a distinct mathematical science rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is generally concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty and decision-making in the face of uncertainty. In applying statistics to
7392-540: The concepts of standard deviation , correlation , regression analysis and the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height, weight and eyelash length among others. Pearson developed the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient , defined as a product-moment, the method of moments for the fitting of distributions to samples and the Pearson distribution , among many other things. Galton and Pearson founded Biometrika as
7504-542: The concepts of sufficiency , ancillary statistics , Fisher's linear discriminator and Fisher information . He also coined the term null hypothesis during the Lady tasting tea experiment, which "is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation". In his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection , he applied statistics to various biological concepts such as Fisher's principle (which A. W. F. Edwards called "probably
7616-828: The contents. There are several techniques for solving the problem of character recognition by means other than improved OCR algorithms. Special fonts like OCR-A , OCR-B , or MICR fonts, with precisely specified sizing, spacing, and distinctive character shapes, allow a higher accuracy rate during transcription in bank check processing. Several prominent OCR engines were designed to capture text in popular fonts such as Arial or Times New Roman, and are incapable of capturing text in these fonts that are specialized and very different from popularly used fonts. As Google Tesseract can be trained to recognize new fonts, it can recognize OCR-A, OCR-B and MICR fonts. Comb fields are pre-printed boxes that encourage humans to write more legibly – one glyph per box. These are often printed in
7728-425: The data that they generate. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic ( bias ), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also occur. The presence of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to
7840-406: The document contains words not in the lexicon, like proper nouns . Tesseract uses its dictionary to influence the character segmentation step, for improved accuracy. The output stream may be a plain text stream or file of characters, but more sophisticated OCR systems can preserve the original layout of the page and produce, for example, an annotated PDF that includes both the original image of
7952-406: The effect of differences of an independent variable (or variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed. The difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted. Each can be very effective. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements with different levels using
8064-495: The evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily accept H 0 but fails to reject H 0 . While one can not "prove" a null hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true with a power test , which tests for type II errors . What statisticians call an alternative hypothesis is simply a hypothesis that contradicts the null hypothesis. Working from a null hypothesis , two broad categories of error are recognized: Standard deviation refers to
8176-478: The expected value assumes on a given sample (also called prediction). Mean squared error is used for obtaining efficient estimators , a widely used class of estimators. Root mean square error is simply the square root of mean squared error. Many statistical methods seek to minimize the residual sum of squares , and these are called " methods of least squares " in contrast to Least absolute deviations . The latter gives equal weight to small and big errors, while
8288-474: The experimental conditions). However, the study is heavily criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of a control group and blindness . The Hawthorne effect refers to finding that an outcome (in this case, worker productivity) changed due to observation itself. Those in the Hawthorne study became more productive not because the lighting was changed but because they were being observed. An example of an observational study
8400-402: The extent to which individual observations in a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean, while Standard error refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean and population mean. A statistical error is the amount by which an observation differs from its expected value . A residual is the amount an observation differs from the value the estimator of
8512-450: The extent to which members of the distribution depart from its center and each other. Inferences made using mathematical statistics employ the framework of probability theory , which deals with the analysis of random phenomena. A standard statistical procedure involves the collection of data leading to a test of the relationship between two statistical data sets, or a data set and synthetic data drawn from an idealized model. A hypothesis
8624-432: The first journal of mathematical statistics and biostatistics (then called biometry ), and the latter founded the world's first university statistics department at University College London . The second wave of the 1910s and 20s was initiated by William Sealy Gosset , and reached its culmination in the insights of Ronald Fisher , who wrote the textbooks that were to define the academic discipline in universities around
8736-402: The former gives more weight to large errors. Residual sum of squares is also differentiable , which provides a handy property for doing regression . Least squares applied to linear regression is called ordinary least squares method and least squares applied to nonlinear regression is called non-linear least squares . Also in a linear regression model the non deterministic part of the model
8848-605: The given parameters of a total population to deduce probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction— inductively inferring from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population. A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate causality , and in particular to draw a conclusion on the effect of changes in the values of predictors or independent variables on dependent variables . There are two major types of causal statistical studies: experimental studies and observational studies . In both types of studies,
8960-513: The information in the data dictionary and data and dynamically build command syntax programs. This extension, introduced in SPSS 14, replaced the less functional SAX Basic "scripts" for most purposes, although SaxBasic remains available. In addition, the Python extension allows SPSS to run any of the statistics in the free software package R . From version 14 onwards, SPSS can be driven externally by
9072-594: The leaders of the National Federation of the Blind . In 1978, Kurzweil Computer Products began selling a commercial version of the optical character recognition computer program. LexisNexis was one of the first customers, and bought the program to upload legal paper and news documents onto its nascent online databases. Two years later, Kurzweil sold his company to Xerox , which eventually spun it off as Scansoft , which merged with Nuance Communications . In
9184-512: The menu structure. The pull-down menu interface also generates command syntax: this can be displayed in the output, although the default settings have to be changed to make the syntax visible to the user. They can also be pasted into a syntax file using the "paste" button present in each menu. Programs can be run interactively or unattended, using the supplied Production Job Facility. A "macro" language can be used to write command language subroutines . A Python programmability extension can access
9296-970: The metadata dictionary, where each row represents a variable and shows the variable name, variable label, value label(s), print width, measurement type, and a variety of other characteristics. Cells in both views can be manually edited, defining the file structure and allowing data entry without using command syntax. This may be sufficient for small datasets. Larger datasets such as statistical surveys are more often created in data entry software, or entered during computer-assisted personal interviewing , by scanning and using optical character recognition and optical mark recognition software, or by direct capture from online questionnaires. These datasets are then read into SPSS. SPSS Statistics can read and write data from ASCII text files (including hierarchical files), other statistics packages, spreadsheets and databases . It can also read and write to external relational database tables via ODBC and SQL . Statistical output
9408-722: The most authoritative of the Annual Test of OCR Accuracy from 1992 to 1996. Recognition of typewritten, Latin script text is still not 100% accurate even where clear imaging is available. One study based on recognition of 19th- and early 20th-century newspaper pages concluded that character-by-character OCR accuracy for commercial OCR software varied from 81% to 99%; total accuracy can be achieved by human review or Data Dictionary Authentication. Other areas – including recognition of hand printing, cursive handwriting, and printed text in other scripts (especially those East Asian language characters which have many strokes for
9520-424: The most celebrated argument in evolutionary biology ") and Fisherian runaway , a concept in sexual selection about a positive feedback runaway effect found in evolution . The final wave, which mainly saw the refinement and expansion of earlier developments, emerged from the collaborative work between Egon Pearson and Jerzy Neyman in the 1930s. They introduced the concepts of " Type II " error, power of
9632-412: The overall result is significant in real world terms. For example, in a large study of a drug it may be shown that the drug has a statistically significant but very small beneficial effect, such that the drug is unlikely to help the patient noticeably. Although in principle the acceptable level of statistical significance may be subject to debate, the significance level is the largest p-value that allows
9744-427: The ownership of SPSS, it was also available on MUSIC/SP . Regression analysis was one of IDA 's strong points. SCSS was a software product intended for online use of IBM mainframes. Although the "C" was for "conversational", it also represented a distinction regarding how the data was stored: it used a column-oriented rather than a row-oriented (internal) database. This gave good interactive response time for
9856-406: The page and a searchable textual representation. Near-neighbor analysis can make use of co-occurrence frequencies to correct errors, by noting that certain words are often seen together. For example, "Washington, D.C." is generally far more common in English than "Washington DOC". Knowledge of the grammar of the language being scanned can also help determine if a word is likely to be a verb or
9968-416: The pen down and lifting it. This additional information can make the process more accurate. This technology is also known as "online character recognition", "dynamic character recognition", "real-time character recognition", and "intelligent character recognition". OCR software often pre-processes images to improve the chances of successful recognition. Techniques include: Segmentation of fixed-pitch fonts
10080-415: The population data. Numerical descriptors include mean and standard deviation for continuous data (like income), while frequency and percentage are more useful in terms of describing categorical data (like education). When a census is not feasible, a chosen subset of the population called a sample is studied. Once a sample that is representative of the population is determined, data is collected for
10192-544: The population. Sampling theory is part of the mathematical discipline of probability theory . Probability is used in mathematical statistics to study the sampling distributions of sample statistics and, more generally, the properties of statistical procedures . The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The difference in point of view between classic probability theory and sampling theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts from
10304-494: The problem of how to analyze big data . When full census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect sample data by developing specific experiment designs and survey samples . Statistics itself also provides tools for prediction and forecasting through statistical models . To use a sample as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it truly represents the overall population. Representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from
10416-470: The publication of Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality by John Graunt . Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its stat- etymology . The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics
10528-461: The same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation . Instead, data are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated. While the tools of data analysis work best on data from randomized studies , they are also applied to other kinds of data—like natural experiments and observational studies —for which
10640-439: The sample data to draw inferences about the population represented while accounting for randomness. These inferences may take the form of answering yes/no questions about the data ( hypothesis testing ), estimating numerical characteristics of the data ( estimation ), describing associations within the data ( correlation ), and modeling relationships within the data (for example, using regression analysis ). Inference can extend to
10752-399: The sample members in an observational or experimental setting. Again, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the sample data. However, drawing the sample contains an element of randomness; hence, the numerical descriptors from the sample are also prone to uncertainty. To draw meaningful conclusions about the entire population, inferential statistics are needed. It uses patterns in
10864-405: The sample to the population as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent that the sample chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for any bias within the sample and data collection procedures. There are also methods of experimental design that can lessen these issues at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about
10976-482: The sample to the population as a whole. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation. Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis : descriptive statistics , which summarize data from
11088-412: The sampling and analysis were repeated under the same conditions (yielding a different dataset), the interval would include the true (population) value in 95% of all possible cases. This does not imply that the probability that the true value is in the confidence interval is 95%. From the frequentist perspective, such a claim does not even make sense, as the true value is not a random variable . Either
11200-576: The standardized ALTO format. Crowd sourcing has also been used not to perform character recognition directly but to invite software developers to develop image processing algorithms, for example, through the use of rank-order tournaments . Commissioned by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the Information Science Research Institute (ISRI) had the mission to foster the improvement of automated technologies for understanding machine printed documents, and it conducted
11312-408: The statistic, though, may have unknown parameters. Consider now a function of the unknown parameter: an estimator is a statistic used to estimate such function. Commonly used estimators include sample mean , unbiased sample variance and sample covariance . A random variable that is a function of the random sample and of the unknown parameter, but whose probability distribution does not depend on
11424-458: The technology useful only in very limited applications. Recognition of cursive text is an active area of research, with recognition rates even lower than that of hand-printed text . Higher rates of recognition of general cursive script will likely not be possible without the use of contextual or grammatical information. For example, recognizing entire words from a dictionary is easier than trying to parse individual characters from script. Reading
11536-440: The test to reject the null hypothesis. This test is logically equivalent to saying that the p-value is the probability, assuming the null hypothesis is true, of observing a result at least as extreme as the test statistic . Therefore, the smaller the significance level, the lower the probability of committing type I error. Optical character recognition Optical character recognition or optical character reader ( OCR )
11648-688: The text from the image file captured by the device. The OCR API returns the extracted text, along with information about the location of the detected text in the original image back to the device app for further processing (such as text-to-speech) or display. Various commercial and open source OCR systems are available for most common writing systems , including Latin, Cyrillic, Arabic, Hebrew, Indic, Bengali (Bangla), Devanagari, Tamil, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters. OCR engines have been developed into software applications specializing in various subjects such as receipts, invoices, checks, and legal billing documents. The software can be used for: OCR
11760-420: The true value is or is not within the given interval. However, it is true that, before any data are sampled and given a plan for how to construct the confidence interval, the probability is 95% that the yet-to-be-calculated interval will cover the true value: at this point, the limits of the interval are yet-to-be-observed random variables . One approach that does yield an interval that can be interpreted as having
11872-416: The two sided interval is built violating symmetry around the estimate. Sometimes the bounds for a confidence interval are reached asymptotically and these are used to approximate the true bounds. Statistics rarely give a simple Yes/No type answer to the question under analysis. Interpretation often comes down to the level of statistical significance applied to the numbers and often refers to the probability of
11984-485: The unknown parameter is called a pivotal quantity or pivot. Widely used pivots include the z-score , the chi square statistic and Student's t-value . Between two estimators of a given parameter, the one with lower mean squared error is said to be more efficient . Furthermore, an estimator is said to be unbiased if its expected value is equal to the true value of the unknown parameter being estimated, and asymptotically unbiased if its expected value converges at
12096-640: The use of sample size in frequency analysis. Although the term statistic was introduced by the Italian scholar Girolamo Ghilini in 1589 with reference to a collection of facts and information about a state, it was the German Gottfried Achenwall in 1749 who started using the term as a collection of quantitative information, in the modern use for this science. The earliest writing containing statistics in Europe dates back to 1663, with
12208-468: The world. Fisher's most important publications were his 1918 seminal paper The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance (which was the first to use the statistical term, variance ), his classic 1925 work Statistical Methods for Research Workers and his 1935 The Design of Experiments , where he developed rigorous design of experiments models. He originated
12320-695: Was done by October 1, 2010. By that date, SPSS: An IBM Company ceased to exist. IBM SPSS is now fully integrated into the IBM Corporation, and is one of the brands under IBM Software Group's Business Analytics Portfolio, together with IBM Algorithmics , IBM Cognos and IBM OpenPages . Companion software in the "IBM SPSS" family are used for data mining and text analytics ( IBM SPSS Modeler ), realtime credit scoring services ( IBM SPSS Collaboration and Deployment Services ), and structural equation modeling ( IBM SPSS Amos ). SPSS Data Collection and SPSS Dimensions were sold in 2015 to UNICOM Systems, Inc.,
12432-402: Was in use by companies, including CompuScan, in the late 1960s and 1970s. ) Kurzweil used the technology to create a reading machine for blind people to have a computer read text to them out loud. The device included a CCD -type flatbed scanner and a text-to-speech synthesizer. On January 13, 1976, the finished product was unveiled during a widely reported news conference headed by Kurzweil and
12544-506: Was not compatible with Intel -based Macintosh computers, due to the Rosetta emulation software causing errors in calculations. SPSS Statistics 15.0 for Windows needed a downloadable hotfix to be installed in order to be compatible with Windows Vista . From version 16.0, the same version runs under Windows, Mac, and Linux. The graphical user interface is written in Java . The Mac OS version
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