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57-781: The Ocean Portal represents the third pillar of the National Museum of Natural History's Ocean Initiative, created to further the museum's mission to increase ocean awareness and stewardship. The other pillars of the initiative include the Sant Ocean Hall, the museum's largest exhibition to date, and the Sant Chair for Marine Science, currently filled by marine biologist Dr. Nancy Knowlton . The National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) cares for an estimated 126 million specimens, approximately 94% of all Smithsonian collections. About one-third of NMNH collections and staff focus on

114-749: A Darwin Point is reached. One such point exists at the northwestern end of the Hawaiian Archipelago; see Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Coral atoll stage . However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) in winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer. 37 species of scleractinian corals inhabit such an environment around Larak Island . Deep-water coral inhabits greater depths and colder temperatures at much higher latitudes, as far north as Norway. Although deep water corals can form reefs, little

171-644: A continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, Darwin's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since Australia is not about to submerge. It formed the world's largest barrier reef, 300–1,000 m (980–3,280 ft) from shore, stretching for 2,000 km (1,200 mi). Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only at depths shallower than 150 m (490 ft) because of their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level. As

228-412: A pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across. Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone (above 70 m), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water. Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae ( dinoflagellates ) of the genus Symbiodinium , commonly referred to as zooxanthellae . These organisms live within

285-496: A pseudo-atoll. These can be distinguished from real atolls only by detailed investigation, possibly including core drilling. Some platform reefs of the Laccadives are U-shaped, due to wind and water flow. Atolls or atoll reefs are a more or less circular or continuous barrier reef that extends all the way around a lagoon without a central island. They are usually formed from fringing reefs around volcanic islands. Over time,

342-989: A range of issues. Activities are frequently linked to subjects explored in the blog and related to the actions and initiatives of collaborating organizations. Several Smithsonian organizations contribute to the Ocean Portal, including the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center in Maryland, the Smithsonian Marine Science Network , the Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce, Florida ,

399-433: A rapidly subsiding bottom can overwhelm coral growth, killing the coral and the reef, due to what is called coral drowning . Corals that rely on zooxanthellae can die when the water becomes too deep for their symbionts to adequately photosynthesize , due to decreased light exposure. The two main variables determining the geomorphology , or shape, of coral reefs are the nature of the substrate on which they rest, and

456-423: A zone extending from approximately 30° N to 30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft). The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), and few reefs exist in waters below 18 °C (64 °F). When the net production by reef building corals no longer keeps pace with relative sea level and the reef structure permanently drowns

513-578: Is constantly changing. Each reef is made up of irregular patches of algae, sessile invertebrates, and bare rock and sand. The size, shape and relative abundance of these patches change from year to year in response to the various factors that favor one type of patch over another. Growing coral, for example, produces constant change in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical storms may knock out large sections of reef and cause boulders on sandy areas to move. Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km (109,800 sq mi), just under 0.1% of

570-445: Is directly attached to a shore, or borders it with an intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon. It is the most common reef type. Fringing reefs follow coastlines and can extend for many kilometres. They are usually less than 100 metres wide, but some are hundreds of metres wide. Fringing reefs are initially formed on the shore at the low water level and expand seawards as they grow in size. The final width depends on where

627-523: Is known about them. The northernmost coral reef on Earth is located near Eilat , Israel . Coral reefs are rare along the west coasts of the Americas and Africa , due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (the Humboldt , Benguela , and Canary Currents , respectively). Corals are seldom found along the coastline of South Asia —from

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684-418: Is often the reef's most diverse area. Coral and calcareous algae provide complex habitats and areas that offer protection, such as cracks and crevices. Invertebrates and epiphytic algae provide much of the food for other organisms. A common feature on this forereef zone is spur and groove formations that serve to transport sediment downslope. The reef flat is the sandy-bottomed flat, which can be behind

741-905: The Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems Program in Belize , and the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. In addition, the Smithsonian Ocean Portal collaborates with several non-Smithsonian organizations, which contribute content and expertise to the site. Nancy Knowlton Nancy Knowlton is a coral reef biologist and a former Sant Chair for Marine Science at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History . She graduated from Harvard University , and from

798-475: The Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma), when reefs formed by a group of bivalves called rudists existed; one of the valves formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted as a cap. Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral reefs, such as Porites , can indicate changes in sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity conditions during

855-739: The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System and the New Caledonian Barrier Reef . Barrier reefs are also found on the coasts of Providencia , Mayotte , the Gambier Islands , on the southeast coast of Kalimantan , on parts of the coast of Sulawesi , southeastern New Guinea and the south coast of the Louisiade Archipelago . Platform reefs, variously called bank or table reefs, can form on the continental shelf , as well as in

912-592: The Middle Cambrian (513–501 Ma ), Devonian (416–359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359–299 Ma), owing to extinct order Rugosa corals, and Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma) and Neogene (23 Ma–present), owing to order Scleractinia corals. Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: those in the Early Cambrian (542–513 Ma) resulted from calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals with conical shape, probably related to sponges ) and in

969-695: The University of California, Berkeley , with a PhD. She was a professor at Yale University , then joined the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama. She is an adjunct professor of marine biology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . While at Scripps, Knowlton also founded the Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation. She was named an Aldo Leopold Leadership Fellow in 1999 and

1026-417: The tropics where the water is agitated, but can only live within a limited depth range, starting just below low tide . Where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form fringing reefs, and can eventually grow to become a barrier reef. Where the bottom is rising, fringing reefs can grow around the coast, but coral raised above sea level dies. If the land subsides slowly,

1083-738: The Indian Ocean, for example, in the Maldives , the Chagos Islands , the Seychelles and around Cocos Island . The entire Maldives consist of 26 atolls. Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones that host different kinds of habitats. Usually, three major zones are recognized: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef (frequently referred to as the reef lagoon). The three zones are physically and ecologically interconnected. Reef life and oceanic processes create opportunities for

1140-509: The Ocean Portal on Facebook and Twitter. In addition, the Ocean Portal has several special sections, such as: The "For Educators" section offers classroom activities, lessons, and educational resources that are teacher-tested and correlate with the Ocean Literacy Principles developed in accordance with National Science Education Standards. The educator materials represent some of the best resources available by subject from

1197-637: The Ocean Portal's collaborators. The materials are available in the Educators' section, but also integrated throughout the site on species, ecosystem, and other subject pages. The educational materials can be filtered by grade, subject, and topic. The Ocean & You section examines the impact of human activities and choices on the global ocean system. It features content on subjects like the Gulf Oil Spill, Climate Change, and Sustainable Seafood. Discussions of human impacts are also integrated throughout

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1254-599: The UV radiation and allowing them to better adapt to warmer water temperatures. In the event of UV or thermal damage, if and when repair occurs, it will increase the likelihood of survival of the host and symbiont. This leads to the idea that, evolutionarily, clade A is more UV resistant and thermally resistant than the other clades. Clades B and C are found more frequently in deeper water, which may explain their higher vulnerability to increased temperatures. Terrestrial plants that receive less sunlight because they are found in

1311-561: The animal phylum Cnidaria , which includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water. Coral reefs first appeared 485 million years ago, at the dawn of the Early Ordovician , displacing the microbial and sponge reefs of the Cambrian . Sometimes called rainforests of

1368-769: The broader public on June 2, 2010 as part of the celebration of World Oceans Day on June 8. The Portal is divided into several sections, including "Ocean Life and Ecosystems," "Ocean Science," "Ocean Over Time," and "Photo Essays." Popular topic areas include the Ocean Portal Blog, the Great White Shark, the Giant Squid, Deep Ocean Exploration, Top Predators Over Time, Coral Reefs, and the Gulf Oil Spill. Users are encouraged to comment on and rate pages, and also encouraged to provide feedback via survey forms and email. Users are also encouraged to join/follow

1425-502: The coast. The fringing reefs of the Red Sea are "some of the best developed in the world" and occur along all its shores except off sandy bays. Barrier reefs are separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon . They resemble the later stages of a fringing reef with its lagoon but differ from the latter mainly in size and origin. Their lagoons can be several kilometres wide and 30 to 70 metres deep. Above all,

1482-485: The coastal plains had become continental islands . As sea level rise continued, water topped most of the continental islands. The corals could then overgrow the hills, forming cays and reefs. Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years. The age of living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along

1539-451: The coral animals. Coral that loses a large fraction of its zooxanthellae becomes white (or sometimes pastel shades in corals that are pigmented with their own proteins) and is said to be bleached , a condition which, unless corrected, can kill the coral. There are eight clades of Symbiodinium phylotypes . Most research has been conducted on clades A–D. Each clade contributes their own benefits as well as less compatible attributes to

1596-415: The corals shelter the zooxanthellae, averaging one million for every cubic centimetre of coral, and provide a constant supply of the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis. The varying pigments in different species of zooxanthellae give them an overall brown or golden-brown appearance and give brown corals their colors. Other pigments such as reds, blues, greens, etc. come from colored proteins made by

1653-529: The deep sea away from continental shelves , around oceanic islands and atolls . The majority of these islands are volcanic in origin. Others have tectonic origins where plate movements lifted the deep ocean floor. In The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs , Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the Beagle . He theorized that uplift and subsidence of Earth's crust under

1710-637: The eastern tip of India ( Chennai ) to the Bangladesh and Myanmar borders —as well as along the coasts of northeastern South America and Bangladesh, due to the freshwater release from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers respectively. Significant coral reefs include: When alive, corals are colonies of small animals embedded in calcium carbonate shells. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals called polyps , arranged in diverse shapes. Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in size from

1767-494: The environment. Knowlton was elected a member of the US National Academy of Sciences in 2013. Coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals . Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , whose polyps cluster in groups. Coral belongs to the class Anthozoa in

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1824-479: The exchange of seawater , sediments , nutrients and marine life. Most coral reefs exist in waters less than 50 m deep. Some inhabit tropical continental shelves where cool, nutrient-rich upwelling does not occur, such as the Great Barrier Reef . Others are found in the deep ocean surrounding islands or as atolls, such as in the Maldives . The reefs surrounding islands form when islands subside into

1881-401: The floor often supports seagrass meadows which are important foraging areas for reef fish. The reef drop-off is, for its first 50 m, habitat for reef fish who find shelter on the cliff face and plankton in the water nearby. The drop-off zone applies mainly to the reefs surrounding oceanic islands and atolls. The reef face is the zone above the reef floor or the reef drop-off. This zone

1938-403: The fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll and table reef based on Stoddart, D.R. (1969). Spalding et al. list four main reef types that can be clearly illustrated – the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll, and "bank or platform reef"—and notes that many other structures exist which do not conform easily to strict definitions, including the "patch reef". A fringing reef, also called a shore reef,

1995-463: The fringing reefs keep pace by growing upwards on a base of older, dead coral, forming a barrier reef enclosing a lagoon between the reef and the land. A barrier reef can encircle an island, and once the island sinks below sea level a roughly circular atoll of growing coral continues to keep up with the sea level, forming a central lagoon. Barrier reefs and atolls do not usually form complete circles but are broken in places by storms. Like sea level rise ,

2052-419: The growth of the coral. This technique is often used by climate scientists to infer a region's paleoclimate . Since Darwin's identification of the three classical reef formations – the fringing reef around a volcanic island becoming a barrier reef and then an atoll – scientists have identified further reef types. While some sources find only three, Thomas lists "Four major forms of large-scale coral reefs" –

2109-548: The history of the change in sea level relative to that substrate. The approximately 20,000-year-old Great Barrier Reef offers an example of how coral reefs formed on continental shelves. Sea level was then 120 m (390 ft) lower than in the 21st century. As sea level rose, the water and the corals encroached on what had been hills of the Australian coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago, sea level had risen to 60 m (200 ft) lower than at present, and many hills of

2166-666: The island erodes away and sinks below sea level. Atolls may also be formed by the sinking of the seabed or rising of the sea level. A ring of reefs results, which enclose a lagoon. Atolls are numerous in the South Pacific, where they usually occur in mid-ocean, for example, in the Caroline Islands , the Cook Islands , French Polynesia , the Marshall Islands and Micronesia . Atolls are found in

2223-418: The main reef, containing chunks of coral. This zone may border a lagoon and serve as a protective area, or it may lie between the reef and the shore, and in this case is a flat, rocky area. Fish tend to prefer it when it is present. The reef lagoon is an entirely enclosed region, which creates an area less affected by wave action and often contains small reef patches. However, the topography of coral reefs

2280-484: The mainland. Unlike fringing and barrier reefs which extend only seaward, platform reefs grow in all directions. They are variable in size, ranging from a few hundred metres to many kilometres across. Their usual shape is oval to elongated. Parts of these reefs can reach the surface and form sandbanks and small islands around which may form fringing reefs. A lagoon may form In the middle of a platform reef. Platform reefs are typically situated within atolls, where they adopt

2337-424: The marine realm. NMNH houses the world's largest marine collection, originating from marine research efforts that date back 160 years. In a first for any Smithsonian Institution website, the Smithsonian Ocean Portal is built on a LAMP architecture using the free, open-source software called Drupal . The New York-based web developer Funny Garbage designed and built the Smithsonian Ocean Portal. The Beta version of

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2394-400: The name "patch reefs" and often span a diameter of just a few dozen meters. In instances where platform reefs develop along elongated structures, such as old and weathered barrier reefs, they tend to arrange themselves in a linear formation. This is the case, for example, on the east coast of the Red Sea near Jeddah . In old platform reefs, the inner part can be so heavily eroded that it forms

2451-528: The name implies, coral reefs are made up of coral skeletons from mostly intact coral colonies. As other chemical elements present in corals become incorporated into the calcium carbonate deposits, aragonite is formed. However, shell fragments and the remains of coralline algae such as the green-segmented genus Halimeda can add to the reef's ability to withstand damage from storms and other threats. Such mixtures are visible in structures such as Eniwetok Atoll . The times of maximum reef development were in

2508-415: The ocean, and atolls form when an island subsides below the surface of the sea. Alternatively, Moyle and Cech distinguish six zones, though most reefs possess only some of the zones. The reef surface is the shallowest part of the reef. It is subject to surge and tides . When waves pass over shallow areas, they shoal , as shown in the adjacent diagram. This means the water is often agitated. These are

2565-528: The oceans formed the atolls. Darwin set out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation. A fringing reef forms around an extinct volcanic island as the island and ocean floor subside. As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef and ultimately an atoll reef. Darwin predicted that underneath each lagoon would be a bedrock base, the remains of the original volcano. Subsequent research supported this hypothesis. Darwin's theory followed from his understanding that coral polyps thrive in

2622-535: The oceans' surface area. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea , Indian Ocean , Southeast Asia and the Pacific ) account for 91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs account for 7.6%. Although corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, shallow-water reefs form only in

2679-490: The offshore outer reef edge formed in open water rather than next to a shoreline. Like an atoll, it is thought that these reefs are formed either as the seabed lowered or sea level rose. Formation takes considerably longer than for a fringing reef, thus barrier reefs are much rarer. The best known and largest example of a barrier reef is the Australian Great Barrier Reef . Other major examples are

2736-451: The open ocean, in fact anywhere where the seabed rises close enough to the surface of the ocean to enable the growth of zooxanthemic, reef-forming corals. Platform reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, the Swain and Capricorn Group on the continental shelf, about 100–200 km from the coast. Some platform reefs of the northern Mascarenes are several thousand kilometres from

2793-429: The polyps' tissues and provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp in the form of glucose , glycerol and amino acids . Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow to form significant reef structures. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their symbionts. In return, as an example of mutualism ,

2850-420: The precise condition under which corals flourish. The light is sufficient for photosynthesis by the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and agitated water brings plankton to feed the coral. The off-reef floor is the shallow sea floor surrounding a reef. This zone occurs next to reefs on continental shelves. Reefs around tropical islands and atolls drop abruptly to great depths and do not have such a floor. Usually sandy,

2907-1330: The sea , shallow coral reefs form some of Earth's most diverse ecosystems. They occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean area, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for at least 25% of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Coral reefs flourish in ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water coral reefs exist on smaller scales in other areas. Shallow tropical coral reefs have declined by 50% since 1950, partly because they are sensitive to water conditions. They are under threat from excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), rising ocean heat content and acidification , overfishing (e.g., from blast fishing , cyanide fishing , spearfishing on scuba ), sunscreen use, and harmful land-use practices, including runoff and seeps (e.g., from injection wells and cesspools). Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services for tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at anywhere from US$ 30–375 billion (1997 and 2003 estimates) to US$ 2.7 trillion (a 2020 estimate) to US$ 9.9 trillion (a 2014 estimate). Though

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2964-412: The sea bed begins to drop steeply. The surface of the fringe reef generally remains at the same height: just below the waterline. In older fringing reefs, whose outer regions pushed far out into the sea, the inner part is deepened by erosion and eventually forms a lagoon . Fringing reef lagoons can become over 100 metres wide and several metres deep. Like the fringing reef itself, they run parallel to

3021-609: The shallow water tropical coral reefs are best known, there are also deeper water reef-forming corals, which live in colder water and in temperate seas. Most coral reefs were formed after the Last Glacial Period when melting ice caused sea level to rise and flood continental shelves . Most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves, the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising sea levels . Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned, without sufficient light. Coral reefs are also found in

3078-562: The site on pages dedicated to specific species and ecosystems, such as Mangroves, Coral Reefs, and the Great White Shark. This section offers specific actions that people can take to have a positive impact on the global ocean system, including "Featured Actions" such as Be Kind to the Beach, Stop Slow Oil Leaks, and Steer Clear of Coral Souvenirs. It offers ways for Ocean Portal users to participate through various Flickr groups like "Trash or Treasure?", and by sharing ideas, thoughts, and comments on

3135-424: The survival of their coral hosts. Each photosynthetic organism has a specific level of sensitivity to photodamage to compounds needed for survival, such as proteins. Rates of regeneration and replication determine the organism's ability to survive. Phylotype A is found more in the shallow waters. It is able to produce mycosporine-like amino acids that are UV resistant , using a derivative of glycerin to absorb

3192-624: The website went live in December 2009. Three months later, in March 2010, the National Museum of Natural History launched What Does It Mean to Be Human? , its second Drupal website and the online companion to the David H. Koch Hall of Human Origins . For several months in early 2010 the Ocean Portal site was tested among specific audiences while development continued. The Beta site launched to

3249-711: Was elected to the Board of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 2008. She also serves as one of three co-chairs for the coral reef Census of Marine Life. She is the author of the book Citizens of the Sea which was published by National Geographic in 2010 to celebrate the end of the Census of Marine Life . In 2011, Knowlton received the 17th Annual Heinz Award with special focus on

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