131-534: The Snowy Mountains Scheme , also known as the Snowy Hydro or the Snowy scheme , is a hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia . Near the border of New South Wales and Victoria , the scheme consists of sixteen major dams; nine power stations; two pumping stations; and 225 kilometres (140 mi) of tunnels, pipelines and aqueducts that were constructed between 1949 and 1974. The Scheme
262-745: A greenhouse gas . According to the World Commission on Dams report, where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant. In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, however, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate
393-463: A low-head hydro power plant with hydrostatic head of few meters to few tens of meters can be classified either as an SHP or an LHP. The other distinction between SHP and LHP is the degree of the water flow regulation: a typical SHP primarily uses the natural water discharge with very little regulation in comparison to an LHP. Therefore, the term SHP is frequently used as a synonym for the run-of-the-river power plant . The largest power producers in
524-577: A Digital Storytelling project to present a diverse collection of stories told from the point of view of seven ex-workers, two lifelong employees and a child of a Snowy worker. As part of the project, participants created short films about their experience on the Snowy Scheme, each story offering a unique perspective into what life was like building the Scheme between 1949 and 1974. The project's artistic director Jenni Savigny assisted participants to make
655-619: A Film Australia documentary, Snowy, A Dream of Growing Up (1989). Her book is based on about 90 oral histories with former Snowy workers and residents, with original recordings archived as a research collection at the State Library of New South Wales. An updated 70th anniversary edition of her book was published by New South in 2019 and its content showcased by Richard Fidler in an interview with McHugh for his popular ABC podcast, Conversations. Most recently, Snowy Hydro , Woden Community Service, Gen S Stories and PhotoAccess partnered for
786-634: A dam near Cabramurra fell about 400 feet when the cable broke, killing 4 Italian employees of a French construction firm. Various stories and memoirs have been written about work on the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Siobhan McHugh 's social history, The Snowy: The People Behind the Power is the most prominent, having been awarded the NSW Premier's Literary Award for Non-Fiction and being the source of an ABC radio documentary series (1987) and
917-585: A few years earlier, had a significant effect on the cultural mix of Australia. Construction of the Snowy Scheme was managed by the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority. It officially began on 17 October 1949 and took 25 years, being officially completed in 1974. An agreement between the United States Bureau of Reclamation and Snowy Mountains Hydro to provide technical assistance and training of engineers
1048-421: A flood and fail. Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as
1179-538: A key element for creating secure and clean electricity supply systems. A hydroelectric power station that has a dam and reservoir is a flexible source, since the amount of electricity produced can be increased or decreased in seconds or minutes in response to varying electricity demand. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, it produces no direct waste, and almost always emits considerably less greenhouse gas than fossil fuel -powered energy plants. However, when constructed in lowland rainforest areas, where part of
1310-809: A large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. A tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in a cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway. A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric station is: P = − η ( m ˙ g Δ h ) = − η ( ( ρ V ˙ ) g Δ h ) {\displaystyle P=-\eta \ ({\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h)=-\eta \ ((\rho {\dot {V}})\ g\ \Delta h)} where Efficiency
1441-451: A larger amount of methane than those in temperate areas. Like other non-fossil fuel sources, hydropower also has no emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or other particulates. Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports , and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with
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#17327732616481572-518: A majority of states. The Constitution also contains a schedule setting out the wording of the oath and affirmation of allegiance. Under section 42, parliamentarians are required to take this oath or affirmation before taking their seat. The oath or affirmation reads: I, A.B. , do swear [or solemnly and sincerely affirm and declare] that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, Her heirs and successors according to law. [Optionally:] SO HELP ME GOD! ... (NOTE— The name of
1703-592: A positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place. While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington , United States for American World War II airplanes before it
1834-548: A relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project. Managing dams which are also used for other purposes, such as irrigation , is complicated. In 2021 the IEA called for "robust sustainability standards for all hydropower development with streamlined rules and regulations". Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of
1965-540: A result of climate change . One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%. Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in
2096-503: A separate Australian monarchy, on one view the plain reading of this section suggests that it ensures that whoever is the monarch of the UK is automatically the monarch of Australia as well. However, other academics have suggested that this clause merely ensures that references to "the Queen" are not restricted to whoever was the monarch at the time of the enactment (i.e. Queen Victoria) and extends
2227-448: A small TV/radio). Even smaller turbines of 200–300 W may power a few homes in a developing country with a drop of only 1 m (3 ft). A Pico-hydro setup is typically run-of-the-river , meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before returning it to the stream. An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use of
2358-455: A source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a grid, or in areas where there is no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on
2489-414: A start-up time of the order of a few minutes. Although battery power is quicker its capacity is tiny compared to hydro. It takes less than 10 minutes to bring most hydro units from cold start-up to full load; this is quicker than nuclear and almost all fossil fuel power. Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units
2620-540: A target of 21% within 10 years. However, by October 2008 it was evident that the return of environmental flows to the Snowy River in 2009 would be no more than 4% of natural flow with governments arguing the Snowy River needs to "pay back" the "Mowamba Borrowings". At the 2010 state election , Ingram lost the seat of Gippsland East to the Nationals . In 2017, it was announced that the 21% target would be reached for
2751-581: A total of 1,500 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electrical energy in one full cycle" which was "about 170 times more energy than the global fleet of pumped storage hydropower plants". Battery storage capacity is not expected to overtake pumped storage during the 2020s. When used as peak power to meet demand, hydroelectricity has a higher value than baseload power and a much higher value compared to intermittent energy sources such as wind and solar. Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years. Operating labor cost
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#17327732616482882-456: A year to the Basin, providing additional water for an irrigated agriculture industry worth about A$ 3 bn per annum, representing more than 40% of the gross value of the nation's agricultural production. The Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme, is one of the most complex integrated water and hydro-electric power schemes in the world and is listed as a "world-class civil engineering project" by
3013-733: A year to the basin for use in Australia's irrigated agriculture industry. In 2016, the Snowy Mountains Scheme was added to the Australian National Heritage List . Since the 1800s, both the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers have been subject to development and control to meet water supply and irrigation needs. By contrast, the Snowy River, that rises in the Australian Alps and flows through mountainous and practically uninhabited country until debouching onto
3144-541: A year's worth of rain fell within 24 hours (see 1975 Banqiao Dam failure ). The resulting flood resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people, and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless. The creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2,000 people died. Constitution of Australia [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Constitution of Australia (also known as
3275-400: Is Talbingo Dam with an embankment volume of 14 488 000 m and a wall height of 161.5 metres. Khancoban Dam is the longest dam in the scheme with a crest length of 1,067 metres (3,501 ft). A variety of dam and spillway types were used in the construction. With a capacity of 4,798,400 megalitres (1,055.5 × 10 ^ imp gal; 1,267.6 × 10 ^ US gal), Lake Eucumbene
3406-452: Is hydroelectric power on a scale serving a small community or industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies but a generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts (MW) is generally accepted as the upper limit. This may be stretched to 25 MW and 30 MW in Canada and the United States. Small hydro stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as
3537-635: Is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation. Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation. However, some data shows that in most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver
3668-610: Is empowered to appoint and dismiss ministers, and is the Commander-in-Chief of the Australian armed forces. However, the Constitution does not set out explicitly the constitutional conventions of responsible government that require the governor-general to act on the advice of ministers and the existence of cabinet and the prime minister. This was intentional on the part of the framers of the constitution, however
3799-662: Is expedient to provide for the admission into the Commonwealth of other Australasian Colonies and possessions of the Queen: Be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: The Constitution is divided into eight chapters, collectively containing 128 sections. The first three chapters state
3930-470: Is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum. Pico hydro is hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW . It is useful in small, remote communities that require only a small amount of electricity. For example, the 1.1 kW Intermediate Technology Development Group Pico Hydro Project in Kenya supplies 57 homes with very small electric loads (e.g., a couple of lights and a phone charger, or
4061-445: Is initially produced during construction of the project, and some methane is given off annually by reservoirs, hydro has one of the lowest lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for electricity generation. The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates . Greater greenhouse gas emission impacts are found in the tropical regions because the reservoirs of power stations in tropical regions produce
Snowy Mountains Scheme - Misplaced Pages Continue
4192-527: Is listed as a National Engineering Landmark by Engineers Australia as part of its Engineering Heritage Recognition Program . Hydroelectricity Hydroelectricity , or hydroelectric power , is electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies 15% of the world's electricity , almost 4,210 TWh in 2023, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and also more than nuclear power . Hydropower can provide large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, making it
4323-462: Is not an energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings. Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river. A tidal power station makes use of
4454-452: Is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it can serve as backup for non-hydro generators. The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store water at low cost for dispatch later as high value clean electricity. In 2021, the IEA estimated that the "reservoirs of all existing conventional hydropower plants combined can store
4585-410: Is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines. Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations, the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year. Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have
4716-538: Is permitted to legislate upon (known as the heads of power ). States may also legislate upon these topics, but Commonwealth law prevails in the event of inconsistency between the laws. Section 52 contains a brief list of topics that only the Commonwealth may legislate upon. Some relevant powers of the governor-general are provided here: to summon, prorogue or dissolve the Parliament, and to give or refuse royal assent to federal bills. Other matters dealt within
4847-406: Is popular in the lakes of the Scheme, notably Lake Jindabyne and Lake Eucumbene. The Snowy Scheme Museum opened at Adaminaby in 2011 to profile the history of the Scheme. Though skiing in Australia began in the northern Snowy Mountains in the 1860s, it was the construction of the vast Snowy Scheme from 1949, with its improvements to infrastructure and influx of experienced European skiers among
4978-427: Is required to have twice as many members as the senate. Chapter I also defines the role of the monarch in relation to the Parliament, although the monarch's own powers over legislation are now regarded as defunct. The chapter notably also provides for the powers of the Commonwealth parliament. The Parliament is not granted plenary power by the Constitution. Section 51 contains a list of topics Commonwealth Parliament
5109-481: Is the largest reservoir in the Scheme. At the other end of the scale, Deep Creek Reservoir is the smallest reservoir with just 11 megalitres (2.4 × 10 ^ imp gal; 2.9 × 10 ^ US gal). (km) Lined (m/s) Completed The Snowy Mountains Scheme has two pumping stations. The 600 MW pump storage facility at Tumut 3 Power Station returns water to Talbingo Reservoir . The 1 MW Jindabyne Pumping Station pumps water from Lake Jindabyne through to
5240-571: The Statute of Westminster 1931 , the Australia Acts 1986 , prerogative instruments and judicial interpretations of these laws by the High Court of Australia . The document may only be amended by referendum , through the procedure set out in section 128 . This requires a double majority : a nationwide majority as well as a majority of voters in a majority of states. Only eight of
5371-539: The American Society of Civil Engineers . The scheme interlocks seven power stations and 16 major dams through 145 kilometres (90 mi) of trans-mountain tunnels and 80 kilometres (50 mi) of aqueducts. The history of the Snowy Scheme reveals its important role in building post World War II Australia. Sir William Hudson was appointed the first commissioner of the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority, serving between 1949 and 1967. The Commissioner's role
Snowy Mountains Scheme - Misplaced Pages Continue
5502-679: The Bonneville Dam in 1937 and being recognized by the Flood Control Act of 1936 as the premier federal flood control agency. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as "white coal". Hoover Dam 's initial 1,345 MW power station was the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6,809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942. The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as
5633-537: The Commonwealth Constitution ) is the fundamental law that governs the political structure of Australia . It is a written constitution , that establishes the country as a federation under a constitutional monarchy governed with a parliamentary system . Its eight chapters sets down the structure and powers of the three constituent parts of the federal level of government: the Parliament ,
5764-647: The Executive Government and the Judicature . The Constitution was drafted between 1891 and 1898 at a series of conventions conducted by representatives of the six self-governing British colonies in Australia: New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , Western Australia , South Australia and Tasmania . This final draft was then approved by each state in a series of referendums from 1898 to 1900. The agreed constitution
5895-549: The Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. In 1878, the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland , England, by William Armstrong . It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1 , US, near Niagara Falls , began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station,
6026-806: The International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism , with over one million visitors 1925. By 1920, when 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land and water. As the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes, including flood control , irrigation and navigation . Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development, and federally owned corporations, such as
6157-633: The Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937) were created. Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had begun a series of western US irrigation projects in the early 20th century, was now constructing large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam . The United States Army Corps of Engineers was also involved in hydroelectric development, completing
6288-583: The Vulcan Street Plant , began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin , with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts. By 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the United States and Canada; and by 1889 there were 200 in the United States alone. At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble , France held
6419-747: The continental divide of the Snowy Mountains , known in Australia as the Great Dividing Range . The water falls 800 metres (2,600 ft) and travels through large hydro-electric power stations which generate peak-load power for the Australian Capital Territory , New South Wales and Victoria . The Scheme also provides some security of water flows to the Murray-Darling basin , providing approximately 2,100 gigalitres (7.4 × 10 cu ft) of water
6550-634: The monarch , the Senate , and the House of Representatives . It provides for the number of representatives to attend each body, and provides that the representatives attending both must be chosen directly by the electorate. Each electorate of the House of Representatives is apportioned equally by population, whereas senators are allocated unevenly between "original states", the territories, and future states (of which none presently exist). The House of Representatives
6681-506: The potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator . The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head . A large pipe (the " penstock ") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine. This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand,
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#17327732616486812-400: The water frame , and continuous production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment practices. In the 1840s, hydraulic power networks were developed to generate and transmit hydro power to end users. By the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand arising from
6943-550: The 1850s and 1860s. In 1889 the Federal Council of Australasia was established. It arose out of a fear of the growing presence of German and French colonies in the Pacific, and a growing Australian identity. The council could legislate on certain subjects but did not have a permanent secretariat, an executive, or independent source of revenue. Perhaps most problematically New South Wales , the largest colony, did not join
7074-441: The 45 proposed amendments put to a referendum have passed. Proposals to amend the document to recognise Indigenous Australians and to become a republic are the subject of significant contemporary debate. The most recent referendum occurred on 14 October 2023, in which a proposed amendment to establish an Indigenous Voice to Parliament was rejected. Political movements to federate the Australian colonies grew to prominence in
7205-566: The Australian Constitution. Some notable conventions include the existence of the prime minister as head of a Cabinet composed of senior ministers. Another is that the governor-general in exercising executive powers must in almost all circumstances act on the advice of the prime minister. Despite not being present explicitly in the Constitution, they are understood by the High Court to be incorporated by implication within
7336-670: The Australian Parliament required to be "reserved for Her Majesty's Pleasure", meaning subject to approval by the UK government. After this and some other minor changes, the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act became law after receiving royal assent on 9 July 1900. This act, also known as the covering act, also authorised the Queen to proclaim the actual act of federation , which was done by Queen Victoria on 17 September 1900, to take effect on 1 January 1901. Prior to this Western Australia then agreed to join
7467-399: The Australian colonies agreed to establish a new convention by popular vote. The convention met over the course of a year from 1897 to 1898. The meetings produced a new draft which contained substantially the same principles of government as the 1891 draft, but with added provisions for responsible government . Some delegates to the 1898 constitutional convention favoured a section similar to
7598-424: The Australian platypus and native Australian Bass , the species over which Ingram initially fought for flows into the Snowy River. A major spillway upgrade now facilitates these flows. Construction of the Scheme began in 1949 and was completed in 1974. Guthega power station commenced power production on 21 February 1955. The total installed capacity is 4.073 gigawatts (5,462,000 hp). The Scheme's largest dam
7729-760: The British Empire entered World War II. The Statute did not however remove the ability for the UK to appoint state governors , make laws that applied to the states and an appeal to the UK Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still existed for certain court cases. These remaining constitutional links to the United Kingdom were removed in 1986 with the passage of the Australia Act , leaving Australia fully independent of
7860-535: The British Imperial Parliament to legislate with effect in Australian federal law was restricted by the UK's passage in 1931 of the Statute of Westminster , adopted into Australian law by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 . The adoption act acceded Australia to the Statute of Westminster retroactively, with the date set to 3 September 1939, when Australia along with the rest of
7991-759: The British Parliament and legal system. In 1988, the original copy of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act from the Public Record Office in London was lent to Australia for the purposes of the Australian Bicentenary . The Australian Government requested permission to keep the copy, and the British Parliament agreed by passing the Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990 . The copy
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#17327732616488122-656: The British government also objecting to the proposed bill. Businessmen feared that an Australian court would be unduly influenced by local interests, whilst the UK wished to ensure that no local judgments would cause embarrassment internationally or within the British Empire . Additionally, the restriction went against plans to create a new court of appeal for the whole empire. Following the amendment, restrictions on Privy Council appeals for some constitutional cases remained, with any further restrictions on appeals imposed by
8253-944: The Commonwealth Government was limited in the powers it could exercise, without the agreement of the States . Subsequently, the Commonwealth Government introduced legislation into the Federal Parliament under its defence power; and enacted the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Power Act 1949 (Cth) that enabled the formation of the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority . Ten years later, the relevant States and Territories introduced their own corresponding legislation and in January 1959
8384-441: The Commonwealth exclusive power over custom and excise duties. Section 92 is notable for prescribing "absolutely free" trade and commerce between the states. Section 96 allows the Commonwealth to make grants on terms determined by Parliament. Section 101 sets up an Inter-State Commission , now defunct. Chapter V: The States contains provisions dealing with the states and their role in the federal system. Sections 106–108 preserve
8515-422: The Commonwealth to ensure it would be an "original state" alongside the other five colonies. At Federation, six British colonies became a single federated nation. Some British Imperial laws remained in force, together with those of the Australian colonies although, according to Robert Menzies , "the real and administrative legislative independence of Australia" was never challenged after federation. The power of
8646-542: The Commonwealth to establish a national religion, to impose any religious observance or prohibit the free exercise of any religion, or to impose a religious test for office. Chapter VI: New States allows for the establishment or admission of new states, and allows Parliament to provide for representation of the territories. It also provides that state boundaries must require the consent of a state before alteration by referendum. Chapter VII: Miscellaneous contains provisions on varied topics. Section 125 establishes Melbourne as
8777-453: The Constitution itself. Since the Constitution itself is divided into sections, sections 1 to 8 of the Act have come to be known for convenience as the "covering clauses". The second covering clause is interpretive, specifying that throughout the Act references to "the Queen" are references to "Her Majesty's heirs and successors in the sovereignty of the United Kingdom". Considering the emergence of
8908-421: The High Court has found these principles arise as a matter of implication. Chapter III: The Judicature sets up the judicial branch. Commonwealth judicial power is vested in a federal supreme court to be called the High Court of Australia. The Parliament is authorised to create federal courts, and to vest the exercise of federal judicial power within the courts of the states. Section 74 (now defunct) provides for
9039-463: The IEA released a main-case forecast of 141 GW generated by hydropower over 2022–2027, which is slightly lower than deployment achieved from 2017–2022. Because environmental permitting and construction times are long, they estimate hydropower potential will remain limited, with only an additional 40 GW deemed possible in the accelerated case. In 2021 the IEA said that major modernisation refurbishments are required. Most hydroelectric power comes from
9170-494: The King or Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for the time being is to be substituted from time to time. ) Since 1901, other oaths or affirmations of office are made by prime ministers, ministers and parliamentary secretaries upon appointment to their office. The wording of these oaths are not set by statute and are set by the government of the day. Constitutional conventions are an important part of
9301-980: The Palace Electric Cinema in New Acton in Canberra and can be viewed on the Woden Community Service YouTube Channel. The Scheme is operated by Snowy Hydro Limited , an unlisted public company incorporated pursuant to the Corporations Act, 2001 (Cth), owned by the Australian Federal government. There is currently further work ongoing for the expansion of the snowy scheme under the Snowy scheme 2.0 announced in 2017. Despite government support it has received many criticisms and concerns over
9432-627: The Snowy Mountains Agreement was reached between the Commonwealth and the States. The legislation created the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority that was given responsibility for the final evaluation, design and construction of the Snowy Mountains Scheme. The final agreed plan was to divert the waters of the Snowy Mountains region to provide increased electricity generating capacity and to provide irrigation water for
9563-557: The Snowy Mountains Scheme was seen as a means of supplementing the flow of the great inland rivers, a means for developing hydro-electric power, and also a way to increase agricultural production in the Murray and Murrumbidgee valleys. Following World War II , the Government of New South Wales proposed that the flow of the Snowy River be diverted into the Murrumbidgee River for irrigation and agricultural purposes. There
9694-726: The Snowy River over the Mowamba Weir. The Dalgety District and Community Association started in response to dirty drinking water for the town of Dalgety, the loss of fishing and looming closure of the caravan park. A weir was constructed at Dalgety and the caravan park stayed as a result of their efforts. In accordance with the Snowy Water Licence, Snowy Hydro Limited has 're-commissioned' the Mowamba Aqueduct. Seasonal variable flows are essential to river ecology including flushing flows to support vital ecosystems for
9825-555: The Snowy and that any extra environmental flows were better used there instead. In the 1999 Victorian state election , the seat of Gippsland East was won by Craig Ingram , an independent and member of the Snowy River Alliance, based in large part on his campaign to improve Snowy flows. In 2000, Victoria and NSW agreed to a long-term target of 28%, requiring A$ 156 million of investment to offset losses to inland irrigators. In August 2002 flows were increased to 6%, with
9956-619: The Snowy river. An extensive public campaign led to the Snowy Water Inquiry being established in January 1998. The Inquiry reported to the New South Wales and Victorian Governments in October of that year, recommending an increase to 15% of natural flows. The two governments were equivocal about this target. Aside from economic considerations, there was a view that the health of the Murray was more important than that of
10087-477: The Snowy-Geehi Tunnel at Island Bend. In March 2017, the Australian government then headed by Malcolm Turnbull suggested a $ 2 billion project expanding the 4.1 GW Snowy Mountains Scheme by 2 GW of pump storage for a week, building new tunnels and power stations, but no new dams. The 80% efficiency of such storage can be sufficient in leveling differences between supply and demand. Dubbed Snowy 2.0 ,
10218-500: The United Kingdom , acknowledging the Queen and the UK houses of Parliament as the legal authority of the act. WHEREAS the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania, humbly relying on the blessing of Almighty God, have agreed to unite in one indissoluble Federal Commonwealth under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and under the Constitution hereby established: And whereas it
10349-464: The ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during
10480-595: The balance between stream flow and power production. Micro hydro means hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are sometimes connected to electric power networks. There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as they can provide an economical source of energy without purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic solar energy systems because in many areas water flow, and thus available hydro power,
10611-508: The bill of rights of the United States Constitution , but this was decided against. This remains the case, with the Constitution only protecting a small and limited number of constitutional rights . To ensure popular support, the 1898 draft was presented to the electors of each colony. After one failed attempt, an amended draft was submitted to the electors of each colony except Western Australia . After ratification by
10742-411: The body. A series of conferences to discuss federalism was promoted by the premier of New South Wales Henry Parkes ; the first held in 1890 at Melbourne, and another at Sydney in 1891. These conferences were attended by most colonial leaders. By the 1891 conference the federalist cause gained momentum. Discussion turned to what the proper system of federal government ought to be. A draft constitution
10873-608: The centenary of the Constitution in the lead up to the Centenary of Federation . Further events have not been widely held since 2001. The day was revived in 2007 and is jointly organised by the National Archives and the Department of Immigration and Citizenship . The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp) was granted royal assent on 9 July 1900. It consists of nine sections. Section 9 contains
11004-502: The chapter include eligibility issues for voting or standing in elections; and miscellaneous matters regarding parliamentary procedures and allowances. Chapter II: The Executive Government sets down the powers of the executive government. Executive power is vested in the monarch and exercisable by the governor-general , who appoints the Federal Executive Council and is to act with its advice. The governor-general
11135-517: The circumstances in which an appeal may be made to the Queen in Council , section 75 provides for the High Court's jurisdiction, and section 80 guarantees trial by jury for indictable offences against the Commonwealth. Chapter IV: Finance and Trade deals with commercial matters within the federation. Section 81 prescribes all Commonwealth revenue to a Consolidated Revenue Fund , and section 90 gives
11266-496: The construction of the scheme were immigrant workers, originating from over thirty countries. The official death toll of workers on the Scheme stands at 121 people. Some 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) of roads and tracks were constructed, seven townships and over 100 camps were built to enable construction of the 16 major dams, seven hydroelectric power stations, two pumping stations, 145 kilometres (90 mi) of tunnel and 80 kilometres (50 mi) of pipelines and aqueducts. Just 2% of
11397-484: The construction work is visible from above ground. Two of the towns constructed for the scheme are now permanent; Cabramurra , the highest town in Australia; and Khancoban . Cooma flourished during construction of the Scheme and remains the headquarters of the operating company of the Scheme. Townships at Adaminaby , Jindabyne and Talbingo were inundated by the flooded waters from Lake Eucumbene , Lake Jindabyne and Jounama Reservoir . Improved vehicular access to
11528-424: The current constitution. Former prime minister Bob Hawke advocated for getting "rid of the constitution we've got", and replacing the Constitution with a system that does not include states. Constitution Day is observed on 9 July, the date Queen Victoria assented to the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act in 1900. The date is not a public holiday. Constitution Day was first held on 9 July 2000 to mark
11659-404: The daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot water wheels . Tidal power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around
11790-505: The dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir. Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of
11921-474: The dry west. It was "greeted with enthusiasm by the people of Australia" and was seen to be "a milestone towards full national development". The chief engineer, New Zealand -born William Hudson (knighted 1955), was chosen to head the scheme as Chairman of the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority, and was instructed to seek workers from overseas. Hudson's employment of workers from 32 (mostly European) countries, many of whom had been at war with each other only
12052-705: The effect of forest decay. Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40–80 million people worldwide. Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure. During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam in Southern China failed when more than
12183-399: The excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir, thus providing demand side response . When the demand becomes greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. In 2021 pumped-storage schemes provided almost 85% of the world's 190 GW of grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage
12314-637: The expansion has been under construction since 2019 and was expected to be complete by 2026. Delays have meant the project will not be fully operational until 2029. The Snowy Scheme is a major tourist destination. Sightseeing driving tours to the key locations of the Scheme are popular out of regional centres like Cooma , Adaminaby and Jindabyne along roads built for the Scheme like the Snowy Mountains Highway and Alpine Way and towards sights like Cabramurra, as Australia's highest town, spectacular dam walls, and scenic lakes. Trout fishing
12445-434: The first time. Some concerned water managers, conservationists, politicians and farmers continue to advocate for the return of environmental flows to the Snowy River. The Snowy River Alliance formed in 1996 to address the lack of environmental flow commemorates Snowy River Day annually, towards the end of August, to mark the 2002 anniversary of when the governments of Victoria, NSW and the Commonwealth first released water into
12576-590: The five colonies, the bill was presented to the British Imperial Parliament with an address requesting Queen Victoria to enact the bill. Prior to the bill's enactment, a final change was made to ensure that a right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council from the High Court remained. Several colonial chief justices and other conservative and financial interests had called for amendments to be made in London, with
12707-534: The forest is inundated, substantial amounts of greenhouse gases may be emitted. Construction of a hydroelectric complex can have significant environmental impact, principally in loss of arable land and population displacement. They also disrupt the natural ecology of the river involved, affecting habitats and ecosystems, and siltation and erosion patterns. While dams can ameliorate the risks of flooding, dam failure can be catastrophic. In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1,400 GW,
12838-646: The high country enabled ski-resort villages to be constructed at Thredbo and Guthega in the 1950s by former Snowy Scheme workers who realised the potential for expansion of the Australian ski industry. The Scheme is in an area of 5,124 square kilometres (1,978 sq mi), almost entirely within the Kosciuszko National Park . The design of the scheme was modelled on that of the Tennessee Valley Authority . Over 100,000 people from over 30 countries were employed during its construction, providing employment for many recently arrived immigrants , and
12969-506: The highest among all renewable energy technologies. Hydroelectricity plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China. but there are geographical limits and environmental issues. Tidal power can be used in coastal regions. China added 24 GW in 2022, accounting for nearly three-quarters of global hydropower capacity additions. Europe added 2 GW, the largest amount for the region since 1990. Meanwhile, globally, hydropower generation increased by 70 TWh (up 2%) in 2022 and remains
13100-519: The largest renewable energy source, surpassing all other technologies combined. Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the late 18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the Industrial Revolution . In the mid-1700s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique , which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and in 1771 Richard Arkwright 's combination of water power ,
13231-750: The largest, producing 14 GW , but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22.5 GW . Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Paraguay and Brazil , with over 85% of their electricity. In 2021 the International Energy Agency (IEA) said that more efforts are needed to help limit climate change . Some countries have highly developed their hydropower potential and have very little room for growth: Switzerland produces 88% of its potential and Mexico 80%. In 2022,
13362-461: The logistical and financial feasibility of the operation. The original plan was for 99% of the water of the Snowy River 's natural flow to be diverted by the Scheme below Lake Jindabyne . Releases from the Scheme were based on the needs of riparian users only and took no account of the ecosystem's needs. It soon became clear that there were major environmental problems in the lower reaches of
13493-571: The mainland National Electricity Market. The Snowy Scheme's primary function is as a water manager, however under the corporatised model must deliver dollar dividends to the three shareholder governments - the NSW, Commonwealth and Victorian Governments. The Scheme also has a significant role in providing security of water flows to the Murray-Darling Basin . The Scheme provides approximately 2,100 gigalitres (7.4 × 10 cu ft) of water
13624-466: The meaning of the phrase to whoever is the currently lawful monarch under Australian succession law. As these laws are not automatically the same as those of the UK, it is theoretically possible for the separate people to be monarch of the UK and Australia via either of the countries passing diverging succession legislation. As such, to ensure that both positions are held by the same person, any succession laws must be changed in each Commonwealth realm, as
13755-491: The mid 19th century. Multiple motivations existed for increased political co-operation between the colonies; including a desire to regulate inter-colonial tariffs . Tensions existed, however, between the larger colonies and the smaller ones, and in the degree to which each colony embraced protectionist policies. Those tensions and the outbreak of the American Civil War harmed the political case for federalism in
13886-538: The nation's temporary capital, while providing for the eventual capital to be established within New South Wales but no less than one hundred miles (160 km) from Sydney . In 1911, New South Wales ceded to the Commonwealth what is now the Australian Capital Territory . Canberra was built within it and declared the national capital in 1913. Section 126 permits the governor-general to appoint deputies. Section 127 provided that "aboriginal natives" were not to be included in headcounts for electoral purposes. That section
14017-633: The plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. The turbines also will kill large portions of the fauna passing through, for instance 70% of the eel passing a turbine will perish immediately. Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed. Drought and seasonal changes in rainfall can severely limit hydropower. Water may also be lost by evaporation. When water flows it has
14148-559: The possible diversion of a number of rivers in the area, tributaries, not only of the Snowy, but of the Murray and Murrumbidgee. The recommendations of the Committee were generally agreed to by a conference of Ministers representing the Commonwealth, New South Wales, and Victoria, and it was also agreed that the Committee should continue its investigations. However, limitations in the Australian Constitution meant that
14279-411: The powers of the states, section 109 provides that Commonwealth legislation prevails over that of a state to the extent of any inconsistency. Section 111 provides for surrender of state territory to the Commonwealth, section 114 forbids states to raise military forces without Commonwealth permission, and also forbids the Commonwealth to tax property of a state government and the reverse. Section 116 forbids
14410-450: The rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century. Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions. In lowland rainforest areas, where inundation of a part of the forest is necessary, it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants produce substantial amounts of methane . This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment and forming methane,
14541-406: The respective powers of the legislature, executive, and judiciary. This split into three chapters has been interpreted by the High Court (most notably in the landmark Boilermakers' case ) as giving rise of the separation of powers doctrine in Australia, most strongly between judicial and the other two powers. Chapter I: The Parliament sets up the legislative branch of government. It consists of
14672-547: The river flats of East Gippsland, had never been controlled in any way, neither for the production of power nor for irrigation. A great proportion of its waters flowed eastwards into the South Pacific Ocean (the Tasman Sea). The Snowy River has the highest headwater source of any in Australia and draws away a large proportion of the waters from the south-eastern New South Wales snowfields. The construction of
14803-465: The short films; enabling them to put together the scripts, record voice overs and edit the short films. In an interview with Andrew Brown ( The Canberra Times ), Savigny said it was important to create a history of the Snowy Hydro using the participant's own words, "You just get a personal sense of what it was like to be there, and what it meant to people's lives." The films premiered 7 June 2018 at
14934-478: The two proposals, initiated a meeting to discuss the use of the waters of the Snowy River, and a Committee was set up in 1946 to examine the question on the broadest possible basis. This Committee, in a report submitted in November 1948, suggested consideration of a far greater scheme than any previously put forward. It involved not only the simple question of use of the waters of the Snowy River, but consideration of
15065-417: The view that the Constitution now derives its legal authority from the Australian people. Others contend this question is ultimately not a legal one, with the binding force of the Constitution the grundnorm ( ' basic norm ' ) or starting premise of the Australian legal system. Following the 2017–18 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis , there was discussion of whether to retain or replace
15196-484: The workers on the Scheme, that really opened up the mountains for the large scale development of a ski industry, and led to the establishment of Thredbo and Perisher as leading Australian resorts. The construction of Guthega Dam brought skiers to the isolated Guthega district and a rope tow was installed there in 1957. Charles Anton, a snowy worker identified the potential of the Thredbo Valley. The scheme
15327-524: The world are hydroelectric power stations, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations . Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of large hydroelectric power stations, facilities from over a few hundred megawatts are generally considered large hydroelectric facilities. Currently, only seven facilities over 10 GW ( 10,000 MW ) are in operation worldwide, see table below. Small hydro
15458-539: The world. The classification of hydropower plants starts with two top-level categories: The classification of a plant as an SHP or LHP is primarily based on its nameplate capacity , the threshold varies by the country, but in any case a plant with the capacity of 50 MW or more is considered an LHP. As an example, for China, SHP power is below 25 MW, for India - below 15 MW, most of Europe - below 10 MW. The SHP and LHP categories are further subdivided into many subcategories that are not mutually exclusive. For example,
15589-405: Was removed by referendum in 1967. Chapter VIII: Alteration of the Constitution is a single section providing for amendments. It prescribes that alterations may only occur through a referendum bill being approved at a national referendum. A national referendum under this section requires a double majority to be valid, which consists of a majority of votes nationally, and a majority of votes in
15720-600: Was agreed between the United States and Australia in Washington, D.C. , on 16 November 1951. A loan for $ 100 million was obtained from the World Bank in 1962. Tunneling records were set in the construction of the Scheme and it was completed on time and on budget in 1974, at a cost of A$ 820 million; a dollar value equivalent in 1999 and 2004 to A$ 6 billion . Around two thirds of the workforce employed in
15851-586: Was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname , the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand 's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point . Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce carbon dioxide . While carbon dioxide
15982-617: Was completed under the supervision of Chief Engineer, Sir William Hudson . It is the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. The water of the Snowy River and some of its tributaries , much of which formerly flowed southeast onto the river flats of East Gippsland , and into Bass Strait of the Tasman Sea , is captured at high elevations and diverted inland to the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers irrigation areas. The Scheme includes two major tunnel systems constructed through
16113-634: Was completed with the official opening of the Tumut 3 Power Station project by the Governor-General of Australia , Sir Paul Hasluck GCMG GCVO KStJ on 21 October 1972. The Scheme used a number of innovative approaches to all sorts of things during its construction. For example all vehicles driven on all parts of the scheme were required to be fitted with seatbelts for driver and front seat passenger; and that these seatbelts were required to be used. On 16 April 1958, an elevator at
16244-523: Was done most recently following the Perth Agreement . The Constitution Act contains a preamble. It does not discuss Western Australia due to the late date which it agreed to join Federation. The preamble names all states except Western Australia, mentions God and recognises that the Australian people have agreed to unite under the Constitution. It ends with the standard enacting clause of
16375-474: Was drawn up at the conference under the guidance of Sir Samuel Griffith , but these meetings lacked popular support. An additional problem was that this draft constitution sidestepped some critical issues like tariff policy. The 1891 draft was submitted to colonial parliaments; however, it lapsed in New South Wales. After that event other colonies were unwilling to proceed. In 1895, the six premiers of
16506-407: Was given to the National Archives of Australia . A curiosity of the document's history is that the act remains in force as a statute of the UK, despite Australia's subsequent independence. Under traditional legal theory, the Constitution is binding by virtue of the UK parliament's paramount authority over Australian law; however, various members of the High Court and some academics have expressed
16637-411: Was important in Australia's post- war economic and social development. Seventy percent of all the workers were migrants. During construction of the tunnels, a number of railways were employed to convey spoil from worksites and to deliver personnel, concrete and equipment throughout. The project used Australia's first transistorised computer ; one of the first in the world. Called 'Snowcom', the computer
16768-479: Was little emphasis placed on the generation of power. A counter proposal by the Government of Victoria involved a greater generation of power, and involved diversion of the Snowy River to the Murray River. Additionally, the Government of South Australia was concerned that downstream flows on the Murray River would be severely jeopardised. The Commonwealth Government , looking at the national implications of
16899-400: Was the overall management of the Scheme. He represented the Scheme at the highest levels of government, welcomed international scientists and engineers, encouraged scientific and engineering research, as well as attending many social and civic activities. Sir William's management style 'stressed cooperation between management and labour and scientific knowledge (facts) over opinion'. The Scheme
17030-490: Was transmitted to London where, after some minor modifications, it was enacted as section 9 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 , an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It came into effect on 1 January 1901 at which point the six colonies became states within the new Commonwealth of Australia. The Constitution is the primary, but not exclusive, source of Australian constitutional law , alongside constitutional conventions , state constitutions ,
17161-730: Was used from 1960 to 1967. At the completion of the project, the Australian Government maintained much of the diverse workforce and established the Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (SMEC), which is now an international engineering consultancy company. The Scheme is the largest renewable energy generator in mainland Australia and plays an important role in the operation of the National Electricity Market , generating approximately 67% of all renewable energy in
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