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60-630: The origin of the Songye begins when its founding ancestors Tshimbale and Kongolo (king) established the Kingdom of Luba . Tshimbale and Kongolo played an important role in establishing the foundation of Luba's political empire. After suffering from political dissension, the ancestors of Songye migrated out of the Luba Empire. The Songye honor their ancestors and cultural heroes through a series of different practices and occasions. In Songye culture, it

120-417: A kitenta . Kasongo had four physically abnormal children. They were barred from succession. His first normal child was Ilunga Mpunji. He was caught with Kasongo's senior wife and they were drowned, and another son died of grief. Their spirits terrorised the people, however Kasongo consulted the diviner of the spirit Nkulu and killed them. Kasongo Bisonwe was the offspring of the son who died of grief, and

180-544: A n'anga is a traditional healer who uses a combination of herbs, medical/religious advice and spiritual guidance to heal people. In Zimbabwe, N'angas are recognized and registered under the ZINATHA (Zimbabwe National Traditional Healer's Association). They are believed to have religious powers to tell fortunes, and to change, heal, bless or even kill people. Traditionally N’angas were people’s main source of help in all matters of life. They have existed for decades well before

240-459: A nkisi , or physical objects intended to be the receptacle for spiritual forces that heal and protect its owner. When Kongo converted to Christianity in the late fifteenth century, the term nganga was used to translate Christian priest as well as traditional spiritual mediators. In modern Kongo Christianity, priests are often called "Nganga a Nzambi" or "priests of God." The owner and operator of an nkisi , who ministered its powers to others,

300-426: A sacred king ), such as not to eat in anyone's view. Nkongolo accidentally insulted Mbidi and he set to return to the east. Nkongolo's sisters, who had been given to Mbidi as wives, were both pregnant. Mbidi told the sisters and the god Mijibu Kalenga that a black-skinned child would be his, while a red-skinned child would be Nkongolo's. He entrusted Mijibu Kalenga with looking after his child. On his return he crossed

360-563: A sacred king ). His capital was Mwibele near Lake Boya . One day Mbidi Kiluwe (lit. "Mbidi the hunter"), who came from the east, was searching for his hunting dog. Mbidi crossed the Lomami River and his followers founded the kingdoms Lukungu and Mutombo Mukulu. He came to the Lunda and fathered a child called Mwata Yamvo . Mbidi wandered to Mwibele and Nkongolo invited him to stay. From him Nkongolo learnt royal behaviour (ie. that of

420-505: A centered crest on the top of the masks and its size varies on the status of the dancer wearing it, elder dances within the Bwadi bra Kifwebe have larger centered crest compared to others. Female Kifwebe masks was typically used for public ceremonies and reproduction rituals. Women within the Songye community were viewed as the bearer of children and good fortune. To them, women represent continuation of life and cultural tradition. The features of

480-569: A female Nkishi has a cavity in the abdomen and head to house the Bijimba. The figure itself usually shows signs of scarification on its face and above its face. The legs of the figure are posed in an unusual way and appears to be unfinished, this may suggests that it was covered by sacred objects and was not meant to be shown. When a Nkishi is being used, the Nganga places shells, horns, animal skins, nails or studs and other spiritual objects outside of

540-536: A key role in Hoodoo practices, which combined Kongo religion, Christianity and indigenous American herbal knowledge . In Cuba, the term nganga refers to a clay pot or iron cauldron that is kept in the homes of Palo diviners, called paleros. Similar to mojo bags in the United States, these banganga contained items from important places in nature and spiritual items, such as forest dirt, volcanic ash, and

600-407: A latex ball. Ilunga won, again, with Mijibu Kalenga's help. Nkongolo's mother laughed at him and he had his mother buried alive. Ilunga saw black ants carrying off termites, which he took as a sign to make war, killing some of Nkongolo's men. While Ilunga was away collecting tribute, Nkongolo set a trap intended to kill him. With the help of a drummer, Ilunga discovered the trap, and fled east, crossing

660-505: A mystical hunter credited with toppling Kongolo Mwamba. This figure is also credited with the introduction of advanced iron forging techniques to the Luba peoples. Luba kings became deities upon their deaths, and the villages from which they ruled were transformed into living shrines devoted to their legacies. The Luba heartland was dotted with these landmarks. Central to Luba regalia for kings and other nobles were mwadi , female incarnations of

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720-423: A protectors of the community, encourages fertility and protects families from evil spirits and practitioners. Nganga (magical practitioners) are responsible for commissioning these figures, they decide the dimensions, sex morphological aspects, and the type of wood used for the figure. These Sculptures comes various forms and serves different purposes, Usually Mankishi are depicted as a large stylized sculptures of

780-477: A standing on a base. In profile, the repetition of strong diagonals in the hair, beard forearm and feet are forceful and aesthetically pleasing. The horizontal shoulders arm and legs helps gives the figure a sense of energy and movement. The Stance is meant to signify the Mankishi's alertness and readiness to carry out his purpose whether it is protecting its owner from evil spirits or witches and sorcerers. Its head

840-600: A tribute system that redistributed agricultural, hunting and mining resources among nobles. The ruling class held a virtual monopoly on trade items such as salt , copper , and iron ore . This allowed them to continue their dominance in much of Central Africa . As in the Kuba Kingdom , the Luba Kingdom held the arts in high esteem. A carver held relatively high status, which was displayed by an adze (axe) that he carried over his shoulder. Luba art varied because of

900-560: Is an honorific title, with the literal meaning of "the essentially powerful". It was given to the three most distant patriarchs and inserted symbolically in all genealogies. In Baluba tradition, a kasala is a well-defined form of slogans in free-verse poetry. They are chanted or recited, sometimes with instrumental accompaniment, by men and women who are professional specialists. It dramatizes public events that call for strong emotions, such as courage in battle, collective joy at official functions, and bereavement at funerals. In style and content,

960-461: Is believed that the chiefs are sacred heirs of their ancestors and of the founding cultural hero. Hunting was an occupation associated with cultural heroes: Chiefs would organize hunting of animals to showcase the power that was imbued in him by the cultural hero he was honoring. Blacksmithing was another craft that was associated with their heroes. Their smiths were reputed for their production of arms; their axes were used by Luba, and some were found in

1020-445: Is usually elongated with sharp facial feature such as the eyes, chin, and rectangular nose. Its torso is also elongated yet the center of abdomen is hollowed along with the top of the head so that the Bijimba, a magical substance created by the Nganga, can be housed in the sculpture and bring spiritual power to it. Female Mankishi exist, but they are smaller, less common, and they are usually for personal usage. Like its male counterpart,

1080-601: The Atlantic slave trade , such as Brazil , the southern United States , Haiti and Cuba . Nganga means "expert" in the Kikongo language . The Portuguese corruption of the meaning was "fetisher." It could also be derived from -ganga , which means "medicine" in Proto-Bantu. As this term is a multiple reflex of a Proto-Bantu root, there are slight variations on the term throughout the entire Bantu-speaking world. In

1140-445: The Kingdom of Kanyok and the Kingdom of Kalundwe , the buffer states between Luba and Lunda , though this ultimately failed. Instead, they focused their efforts on less centralized regions, mainly to the east and south of Luba. They established client states known as "fire kingdoms" - vassal kingdoms on the Luba frontier that were granted the sacred royal fire embers of the Luba kings (whom they were often seen as equals to). However,

1200-517: The Kingdom of Kongo and the Kingdom of Ndongo , expert healers, known as banganga , underwent extensive training to commune with the ancestors in the spiritual realms and seek guidance from them. They possessed the skill to communicate with the ancestors in the spiritual realm, or Ku Mpémba , as well as divining the cause of illness, misfortune and social stress and preparing measures to address them, often by supernatural means and sacred medicine, or minkisi . They were also responsible for charging

1260-534: The 18th century, the Luba invaded groups of the Songye people,, but did not conquer them, and consolidated their power north of the Upemba Depression . Trade and tribute extraction were emphasized during this period rather than conquest of land. In the 19th century, the Luba began invading their neighbors to set up their own vassal tributaries. They first attempted western invasions for the submission of

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1320-578: The British colonial era. Guerrilla leaders are said to have consulted with N’angas during the Rhodesian Bush War . Even today, N'angas are consulted by the people for advice and healing of many illnesses. Sometimes N'angas refer their patients to western medical practitioners and hospitals in case of emergency or illness they cannot cure with the help of their healing spirit. In the United States, nganga, who acted as spiritual leaders, played

1380-418: The Bwadi bra Kifwebe help regulate and maintain political order and balance between the chief and his communities. The Bwadi bra Kifwebe maintain balance within the community by conducting masquerades, rituals and rites such as initiation rituals, circumcisions and funerals. The Bwadi bra Kifwebe maintain balance within the community by conducting masquerades. The overall appearance of a masquerader varies on

1440-495: The Congo River and told the ferryman only to allow a black man, not red, to cross. One sister gave birth to a black-skinned boy named Kalala Ilunga (lit. "Ilunga the warrior"). He was precocious. He became known as an athlete and hunter. Nkongolo challenged Ilunga to a game called masoko , similar to marbles . With the help of Mijibu Kalenga Ilunga won. They then played another game called bulundu , which involved kicking

1500-452: The Congo. Nkongolo pursued him, but the ferryman hid the canoes. Ilunga brought together an army from his father's realm and returned. Nkongolo fled, amid attempts to build a fortified island. Ilunga and his men captured Nkongolo and executed him, burying his head and genitals in a sacred basket. The basket was brought to Ilunga's father's realm and buried. In its place grew an anthill, which

1560-409: The ability to see hidden sources of illness and evil. Yombe nganga often wore white masks, whose color represented the spirit of a deceased person. White was also associated with justice, order, truth, invulnerability, and insight: all virtues associated with the nganga. The nganga is instructed in the composition of the nkondi , perhaps in a dream, by a particular spirit. In one description of

1620-570: The ancestral kings. Staffs, headrests, bow stands and royal seats featuring this subject represented the divine status of the ruler and the elegant refinement of his court. The Luba Kingdom kept official "men of memory" who were part of a group called the Mbudye. They were responsible for maintaining the oral histories associated with kings, their villages and the customs of the land. Parallels to these kinds of officials can be found in neighboring kingdoms such as Kuba and Lunda. The local economy led to

1680-400: The appropriate use of magical ingredients. In order to become a member of the Bwadi bra Kifwebe, all applicants must undergo an initiation process. During this process, initiates must learn and identify a secret esoteric language. They must undergo a radical and violent experience in order to become less fearful of the unknown and learn their roles within the subject to Bwadi bra Kifwebe. Some of

1740-458: The assistance of a court of nobles known as Bamfumus . The kings reigned over their subjects through clan kings known as Balopwe . The diverse populations of the Luba were linked by the Bambudye , a secret society that kept the memory of the Luba alive and taught throughout the realm. The Mbudye tradition states that all of the rulers of the Luba Empire traced their ancestry to Kalala Ilunga,

1800-479: The banganga's process, the nganga then cuts down a tree for the wood that s/he will use to construct the nkondi. S/he then kills a chicken, which causes the death of a hunter who has been successful in killing game and whose captive soul subsequently animates the nkondi figure. Based on this process, Gell writes that the nkondi is a figure an index of cumulative agency, a "visible knot tying together an invisible skein of spatio-temporal relations" of which participants in

1860-521: The community. When the dancer is wearing a male mask his movements are aggressive and unstable, however when a dancer wears a female mask his movements are gentle and controlled. The dances of the kifwebe dancers are meant to encourage social conformity within the community showing its people how one should behave in their society. There are two different types of kifwebe masks. The kifwebe masks come in various designs and reference different aspects of nature, culture and cosmology. Kifwebe masks symbolized

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1920-413: The dancer, the type of ceremony they're performing in, and spirit being evoked. Normally Masqueraders have a wooden mask and are covered head to toe in flowing black raffia fibers made from the bark or roots of trees. Their arms, bodies and legs are covered with raffia netting, with goat skins fastened around their waist. The dancers are male and the complexity of their costume varies on their status within

1980-414: The dead that can influence the world of men. These spirits can be malevolent spirits causing infertility, bad harvests and sickness or benevolent spirits bringing good health and prosperity in the hunt and field. The Songye believe that spirits can be reborn; benevolent spirits are believed to be reborn by creating a mamkishi power figure, while malevolent spirits (bikudi) are not reborn and are forced to roam

2040-583: The development of several small Luba kingdoms. Luba traders linked the Congolese forest to the north with the mineral-rich region in the center of modern Zambia known as the Copperbelt. The trade routes passing through Luba territory were also connected with wider networks extending to both the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. With the formation of the Luba kingdom, the economy was complex and based on

2100-529: The disruptions of succession disputes and flexible enough to incorporate foreign leaders and governments. The Luba model of governing was so successful that it was adopted by the Lunda Kingdom and spread throughout the region that is today northern Angola, northwestern Zambia , and southern Democratic Republic of Congo. Law and order were handled by the king, known as the Mulopwe ('sacred king'), with

2160-438: The distant Indian Ocean . At this time, social stratification and governance began to form. By the 14th century, the people of the region were organized into various successful farming and trading communities — the gradual process of the communities merging began. Some communities began to merge into larger, more centralized ones; the reason for this is likely because of competition for increasingly limited resources. "Lords of

2220-480: The dried fish with the inhabitants of the protein-starved savanna . By the 6th century, fishing people lived on lakeshores, worked iron, and traded palm oil . By the 10th century, the people of Upemba had diversified their economy, combining fishing, farming and metal-working. Metal-workers relied on traders to bring them the copper and charcoal that they needed in smelting. Traders exported salt and iron items, and imported glass beads and cowry shells from

2280-428: The earth for eternity. Not all spirits who are unable to be reborn as a Nkishi are wandering spirits, spirits who are not reborn yet are knowledgeable on their power and knowledge of patrilineage founders, heroic leaders, and lineage chiefs and dignitaries become guardians of the lineage and provide general protection. Mankishi conform to a certain magico-social standard within the Songye community. Songye figures serves as

2340-498: The empire over the upper left bank territories of the Lualaba River . At its peak, the state had about a million people paying tribute to its king. Luba-Katanga oral traditions start with a man named Kyubaka Ubaka (lit. "Maker of huts") and a woman named Kibumba Bumba (lit. "Pottery maker") who lived east of the upper Congo River . They gave birth to twins; a boy named Kyungu and a girl named Kibange. Several generations of

2400-405: The female kifwebe mask was meant to portray these ideas. Typically they share similar characteristics as the male mask however it facial features are more gentle and rounded evoking the tenderness of a mother as well as the power to protect and support her children. The structure of the face is longed, the mask itself is covered in white paint or Kaolin. Mankishi (singular: Nkishi ) are spirits of

2460-422: The figure to enhance its power and influence. The housing of the Mankishi varies on its size, purpose and importance, larger Mankishi that are created to guard and protect a family or village is housed in a family shine. Smaller more personal Mankishi are usually kept by the owner and are portable. Kingdom of Luba The Luba Empire or Kingdom of Luba was a pre-colonial Central African state that arose in

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2520-429: The fire would "burn out" with the death of the king, meaning their status as a "fire kingdom" would only last for the king's tenure. The Luba set up three main fire kingdoms in the 19th century: Ultimately, long-distance trade destroyed the kingdom of Luba. In the 1870s and 1880s, traders from East Africa began searching for slaves and ivory in the savannas of central Africa. The empire was raided for slaves beginning

2580-423: The historian Thomas Reefe , the accuracy of the story and the existence of certain figures, like Kolongo, Kalala, and Ilunga, is questionable. Reefe believes that the accounts of Luba's foundation are mythical tales, however Congolese historians maintain they're based on historical events. The kingdom of Luba's success was due in large part to its development of a form of a government durable enough to withstand

2640-409: The kasala by itself is a diverse genre of proverbs, myths, fables, riddles, tales and historical narratives. The Luba Empire greatly expanded its influence during the period from 1700-1860. This expansion was done through tributaries, where Luba armies frequently targeted population-dense regions (usually under smaller states with less military resistance) to extract tribute from them to the emperor. In

2700-408: The kingdom's vast territory. Some characteristics are common. The important role of woman in the creation myths and political society resulted in the decoration of many prestigious objects with female figures. Headrests and staffs were of great importance in relation to beliefs about prophetic dreams and ancestor worship. Dreams were believed to communicate messages from the other world. Therefore, it

2760-449: The land" held priestly roles due to their special relationship with the spirits of the land and were widely recognised, holding sway over multiple villages and essentially ruling embryonic kingdoms. As lineages grew in size, authority was opportunistically absorbed or incorporated by force, leading to the formation of states. The Luba Kingdom was founded by King Kongolo Mwamba . His nephew and immediate successor, Kalala Ilunga , expanded

2820-424: The living and the dead and are able to enact their will on the community. Bwadi bra Kifwebe is a secret society of masked men. In the community, these men were known for their use of magic (Buki or Buchi) and sorcery (Masende). Buki and Masende magic differ from witchcraft; these types of magic are inherited or obtained either by will or unconsciously. Witchcraft, in contrast, can be obtained through initiation and at

2880-619: The marshy grasslands of the Upemba Depression in what is now southern Democratic Republic of Congo . Archaeological research shows that the Upemba Depression had been occupied continuously since at least the 4th century AD. In the 4th century, the region was occupied by iron -working farmers. Over the centuries, the people of the region learned to use nets , harpoons , make dugout canoes , and clear canals through swamps. They had also learned techniques for drying fish, which were an important source of protein; they began trading

2940-412: The mask. The ruggedness of the mask itself symbolizes the underworld and the spirits escape from it. Male Kifwebe masks were mainly used for initiation ceremonies, circumcision, and the enthronement and funerals of the supreme chief. The face of a typical Kifwebe masks is covered with linear incisions, a square protruding mouth and a linear nose set between globular pierced eyes. Male masks typical have

3000-582: The rapid destruction of the Luba Kingdom. In 1889 it was split in two by a succession dispute, ending the unified state, and later joined the Belgian Congo Free State . Nganga A nganga (pl. banganga or kimbanda ) is a spiritual healer , diviner, and ritual specialist in traditional Kongo religion . These experts also exist across the African diaspora in countries where Kongo and Mbundu people were transported during

3060-457: The ritual are aware. In South Africa , the inyanga has a medicinal role, in contrast to the sangoma , who deals with divination and the ancestral spirits , however, the distinction has become blurred in some areas and many traditional healers tend to practice both arts. In Swahili , mganga refers to a qualified physician or traditional healer. Among the Shona people of Zimbabwe ,

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3120-462: The ruins of Khami in Rhodesia . The people of Songye believe in a supreme being Ele-ife, however, he is not praised as much as ancestral spirits. Ancestral worship is very prevalent within Songye culture, it is believed that the spirit of their ancestors is more accessible to them due to their shared experience of being alive. As a result of this, these spirits have a connection to both the land of

3180-409: The same names followed. People moved west with each generation until reaching the lands of the Luba. An offspring of this line named Mwamba took the name Nkongolo (lit "The rainbow"). He was red-skinned and was notorious for his cruelty. He used a nkololo curved knife to mutilate people. Nkongolo came to rule over many people as a mukalanga (a conquerer/self-made ruler, as opposed to mulopwe ,

3240-430: The spirits of the dead, the underworld and the struggle between good and evil (Community vs antisocial practices and witchcraft), each element of the mask symbolized these aspects in a certain way. the intertwining of the rhythmic colors of red, black and white was meant to symbolize the struggle between good (white) and evil (black and red), the combination of these colors embody the positive and dangerous force held with in

3300-548: The titleholder hid him at Bisonge , near the southern border with the Songye people . Kazadi died accidentally, with Shinta becoming a kitenta . Mwine Munza was upset he wouldn't have an heir to continue sacral kingship . The titleholder brought back Ilunga Mwila and Mwine Munza was overjoyed, with Ilunga Mwila succeeding him on his death. "Ilunga the Ugly One" ruled for a short time, and was succeeded by Kasongo Mwine Kibanza ("Kasongo lord of Kibanza "), with Kalongo becoming

3360-406: Was common to have two priestess figures adorned on a headrest on which one slept. Luba staffs, usually owned by kings, village chiefs or court dignitaries, were also carved with dual or paired female figures. Single figures on art pieces, specifically staffs, represented dead kings whose spirits are carried in a woman's body. Among the Luba, the name "Nkole" appears at the head of every genealogy. It

3420-399: Was his grandfather's favourite. Kasongo Bisonwe was declared his successor and was protected from the wrath of his uncles. Kasongo Mwine Kibanza died and there ensued dynastical conflict. The other claimants died, one from a snake bite, one from a leopard. Kasongo Bisonwe, now Kasongo Kabundulu, defeated another claimant in battle to become ruler. Kabanda became his kitenta . According to

3480-479: Was intended to create a frightening effect, or kimbulua in the Kongo language . The nganga's costume was often modeled on his nkisi . The act of putting on the costume was itself part of the performance; all participants were marked with red and white stripes, called makila , for protection. The "circles of white around the eyes" refer to mamoni lines (from the verb mona , to see). These lines purport to indicate

3540-505: Was taken as a sign Nkongolo wished to stay there, making it the first sacred village ( kitenta ). Ilunga established a court in Mwilunde , and took the title Mwine Munza ("lord of Munza"). Tribute came from all of the country and no region remained outside his control. He killed most of his children, leaving succession to two boys, Kazade Milele and one covered in animal hair, Ilunga Mwila. Mwine Munza wanted Ilunga Mwila killed, however

3600-553: Was the nganga . An English missionary describes how an nganga looks during his healing performance: Thick circles of white around the eyes, a patch of red across the forehead, broad stripes of yellow are drawn down the cheeks, bands of red, white, or yellow run down the arms and across the chest.... His dress consists of the softened skins of wild animals, either whole or in strips, feathers of birds, dried fibres and leaves, ornaments of leopard, crocodile or rat's teeth, small tinkling bells, rattling seedpods... This wild appearance

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