Woodworking is the skill of making items from wood , and includes cabinetry , furniture making, wood carving , joinery , carpentry , and woodturning .
105-447: Sawdust (or wood dust ) is a by-product or waste product of woodworking operations such as sawing , sanding , milling and routing . It is composed of very small chips of wood . These operations can be performed by woodworking machinery , portable power tools or by use of hand tools . In some manufacturing industries it can be a significant fire hazard and source of occupational dust exposure . Sawdust, as particulates ,
210-463: A fuel . Until the advent of refrigeration, it was often used in icehouses to keep ice frozen during the summer. It has been used in artistic displays , and as scatter in miniature railroad and other models. It is also sometimes used to soak up liquid spills, allowing the spill to be easily collected or swept aside. As such, it was formerly common on barroom floors. It is used to make Cutler's resin . Mixed with water and frozen, it forms pykrete ,
315-702: A "9.4% decline in injury rates" and a "26% reduction in injury cost" for the inspected firms. The study found "no evidence that these improvements came at the expense of employment, sales, credit ratings, or firm survival." A 2020 study in the American Economic Review found that the decision by the Obama administration to issue press releases that named and shamed facilities that violated OSHA safety and health regulations led other facilities to increase their compliance and to experience fewer workplace injuries. The study estimated that each press release had
420-485: A Respondent is required to address all allegations of adverse actions taken against Complainant's employment. Additionally, these whistleblower investigations follow the McDonnell-Douglas burden shifting framework. WPP's Investigators conduct complex investigations pertaining to complaints of retaliation by an employer (Respondent) against an employee (Complainant) who reported a violation(s) covered under one of
525-508: A battery, motor, or a power cable connected to a wall outlet. The more common power tools are: Occupational Safety and Health Administration The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ; / ˈ oʊ ʃ ə / ) is a regulatory agency of the United States Department of Labor that originally had federal visitorial powers to inspect and examine workplaces. The United States Congress established
630-450: A deadlock. Questions about the science behind the determination of sawdust being an environmental hazard remain for sawmill operators (though this is mainly with finer particles), who compare wood residuals to dead trees in a forest. Technical advisors have reviewed some of the environmental studies, but say most lack standardized methodology or evidence of a direct impact on wildlife . They do not take into account large drainage areas , so
735-427: A diminished blunting effect on tools. Highly workable wood is easier to manipulate into desired forms. If the wood grain is straight and even, it will be much easier to create strong and durable glued joints. Additionally, it will help protect the wood from splitting when nailed or screwed. Coarse grains require a lengthy process of filing and rubbing down the grain to produce a smooth result. Another important factor
840-404: A general pattern, softwoods are not necessarily always “softer” than hardwoods, and vice versa. Softwood is most commonly found in the regions of the world with lower temperatures and is typically less durable, lighter in weight, and more vulnerable to pests and fungal attacks in comparison to hardwoods. They typically have a paler color and a more open grain than hardwoods, which contributes to
945-490: A language and vocabulary workers can understand. OSHA sets enforceable permissible exposure limits (PELs) to protect workers against the health effects of exposure to hazardous substances, including limits on the airborne concentrations of hazardous chemicals in the air. Most of OSHA's PELs were issued shortly after the adoption of the OSH Act in 1970. Attempts to issue more stringent PELs have been blocked by litigation from
1050-475: A large collection of these artifacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, after 2000 BC bronze as iron working was unknown until much later. Commonly used woodworking tools included axes , adzes , chisels , pull saws , and bow drills . Mortise and tenon joints are attested from
1155-430: A lighter color, maple also can take stains and paint well. There are many factors to consider when deciding what type of wood to use for a project. One of the most important is the workability of the wood: the way in which it responds when worked by hand or tools, the quality of the grain, and how it responds to adhesives and finishes. When the workability of wood is high, it offers a lower resistance when cutting and has
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#17327869020311260-520: A problem and the date by which the corrective actions must be completed. OSHA's fines are very low compared with other government agencies. They were raised for the first time since 1990 on August 2, 2016, to comply with the 2015 Federal Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act Improvements Act passed by Congress to advance the effectiveness of civil monetary penalties and to maintain their deterrent effect. The new law directs agencies to adjust their penalties for inflation each year. The maximum OSHA fine for
1365-493: A relatively environmentally benign fashion. Because of its adsorbent properties it has been used as a cleaning agent for removing grease or oil in various occupations. It has also been noted for its ability to remove lead contamination from water. Wood flour can be used as a binder in grain filler compounds. Large quantities of wood flour are frequently to be found in the waste from woodworking and furniture companies. An adaptive reuse to which this material can be directed
1470-500: A result is commonly used for outdoor projects such as patios, outdoor furniture, and building exteriors. This wood can be easily found at most home centers in the US and Canada for a moderate price. Within the USA fir , also known as Douglas fir , is inexpensive and common at local home centers. It has a characteristic straight, pronounced grain with a red-brown tint. However, its grain pattern
1575-420: A serious violation is $ 13,653 (which can be assessed daily after a failure to "abate" the violation) and the maximum fine for a repeat or willful violation is $ 136,532. In determining the amount of the proposed penalty, OSHA must take into account the gravity of the alleged violation and the employer's size of business, good faith, and history of previous violations. Employers have the right to contest any part of
1680-464: A slow-melting, much stronger form of ice . Sawdust is used in the manufacture of charcoal briquettes . The claim for invention of the first commercial charcoal briquettes goes to Henry Ford who created them from the wood scraps and sawdust produced by his automobile factory. Cellulose , fibre starch that is indigestible to humans, and a filler in some low calorie foods, can be and is made from sawdust, as well as from other plant sources. While there
1785-515: A standard, it must go through a very extensive and lengthy process that includes substantial public engagement, notice, and comment. The agency must show that a significant risk to workers exists and that there are feasible measures employers can take to protect their workers. In 2000, OSHA issued an ergonomics standard. In March 2001, Congress voted to repeal the standard through the Congressional Review Act . The repeal, one of
1890-663: A state's plan, such as work in maritime industries or on military bases. Workers at state and local government agencies are not covered by federal OSHA but have OSH Act protections if they work in those states that have an OSHA-approved state program. OSH Act rules also permit states and territories to develop plans that cover only public sector (state and local government) workers. In these cases, private sector workers and employers remain under federal OSHA jurisdiction. Five additional states and one U.S. territory have OSHA-approved state plans that cover public sector workers only: Connecticut , Illinois , Maine , New Jersey , New York , and
1995-421: A suction force through piping systems from the point of dust formation to a waste disposal unit. They consist of four elements: dust hoods at the point of dust formation, ventilation ducts, an air cleaning device (waste separator or dust collector) and an air moving device (a fan, otherwise known as an impeller). The air, containing dust and chips from the woodworking operation, is sucked by an impeller. The impeller
2100-703: A variety of forms and styles, from realist to abstract carvings, and often uses unusual wood materials such as rainwood or wood with unique textures to highlight the uniqueness of the work. In recent years, the art of modern wood carving has become increasingly popular among woodworkers and visual art enthusiasts not only in Asia, but also around the world. Modern woodcarving art is often exhibited in art galleries and museums, and can be seen in several global contemporary art exhibitions. Woodworking, especially furniture making, has many different designs/styles. Throughout its history, woodworking designs and styles have changed. Some of
2205-469: A wide range of serious hazards. Examples of OSHA standards include requirements for employers to provide fall protection such as a safety harness/line or guardrails; prevent trenching cave-ins ; prevent exposure to some infectious diseases; ensure the safety of workers who enter confined spaces; prevent exposure to harmful chemicals; put guards on dangerous machines; provide respirators or other safety equipment, and provide training for certain dangerous jobs in
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#17327869020312310-447: A wide variety of properties, making it easy to find a hardwood to suit nearly any purpose, but they are especially suitable for outdoor use due to their strength and resilience to rot and decay. The coloring of hardwoods ranges from light to very dark, making it especially versatile for aesthetic purposes. However, because hardwoods are more closely grained, they are typically harder to work than softwoods. They are also harder to acquire in
2415-410: A workplace fatality, multiple hospitalizations, worker complaints, or referrals. OSHA is a small agency, given the size of its mission: with its state partners, OSHA has approximately 2,400 inspectors covering more than 8 million workplaces where 130 million workers are employed. In Fiscal Year 2012 (ending Sept. 30), OSHA and its state partners conducted more than 83,000 inspections of workplaces across
2520-426: Is composting . Wood flour can be subject to dust explosions if not cared for and disposed of properly. As with all airborne particulates , wood dust particle sizes are classified with regard to effect on the human respiratory system. For this classification, the unit for measurement of particle sizes is the micrometre or micron (μm), where 1 micrometre = 1 micron. Particles below 50 μm are not normally visible to
2625-739: Is a misdemeanor with a maximum of 6 months in jail. In response to the criticism, OSHA, in conjunction with the Department of Justice, has pursued several high-profile criminal prosecutions for violations under the Act and has announced a joint enforcement initiative between OSHA and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which has the ability to issue much higher fines than OSHA. Meanwhile, Congressional Democrats , labor unions , and community safety and health advocates are attempting to revise
2730-516: Is a popular choice for its rich color and grain. Lastly, oak is a strong, sturdy, and versatile wood for carving with a defined grain. It is also a popular wood for furniture making. Each area of woodworking requires a different variation of tools. Power tools and hand tools are both used for woodworking. Many modern woodworkers choose to use power tools in their trade for the added ease and to save time. However, many woodworkers still choose to use only hand tools for several reasons such as tradition ,
2835-581: Is a very common material for furniture, and is resistant to normal wear-and-tear, but it is best for indoor pieces. A hardwood, mahogany has a trademark reddish-brown to deep-red tint and is known as "one of the great furniture woods". However, mahogany is not typically grown in sustainable forests, and thus runs a steep price at local lumber yards. With two varieties, red and white, oak is known to be easy to work with and relatively strong. However, furniture makers often opt for white oak over red oak for its attractive figure and moisture-resistance. Depending on
2940-537: Is important for employers, workers, and OSHA in evaluating the safety of a workplace, understanding industry hazards, and implementing worker protections to reduce and eliminate hazards. Employers with more than ten employees and whose establishments are not classified as a partially exempt industry must record serious work-related injuries and illnesses using OSHA Forms 300, 300A and 301. Recordkeeping forms, requirements, and exemption information are on OSHA's website. OSHA's Whistleblower Protection Program (WPP) enforces
3045-421: Is made from hardwoods because of its durability and strength. Very low grade wood flour is occasionally made from sapless softwoods such as pine or fir . Wood flour is commonly used as a filler in thermosetting resins such as bakelite , and in linoleum floor coverings. Wood flour is also the main ingredient in wood/plastic composite building products such as decks and roofs. Prior to 1920, wood flour
3150-540: Is no documentation for the persistent rumor, based upon Upton Sinclair 's novel The Jungle , that sawdust was used as a filler in sausage, cellulose derived from sawdust was and is used for sausage casings. Sawdust-derived cellulose has also been used as a filler in bread. When cereals were scarce, sawdust was sometimes an ingredient in kommissbrot . Auschwitz concentration camp survivor, Dr. Miklós Nyiszli , reports in Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account that
3255-639: Is not at all advisable to use sawdust within home aquariums, as was once done by hobbyists seeking to save some expense on activated carbon . Sawdust is flammable and accumulations provide a ready source of fuel. Airborne sawdust can be ignited by sparks or even heat accumulation and result in dust fire or explosions. At sawmills , unless reprocessed into particleboard, burned in a sawdust burner, or used to make heat for other milling operations, sawdust may collect in piles and add harmful leachates into local water systems, creating an environmental hazard . This has placed small sawyers and environmental agencies in
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3360-503: Is not following OSHA standards. Workers and their representatives have the right to ask for an inspection without OSHA telling their employer who filed the complaint. It is a violation of the OSH Act for an employer to fire, demote, transfer or in any way discriminate against a worker for filing a complaint or using other OSHA rights. When an inspector finds violations of OSHA standards or serious hazards, OSHA may issue citations and fines. A citation includes methods an employer may use to fix
3465-475: Is notably soft, Basswood is particularly popular with beginner carvers. It is used in many lower-cost instruments like guitars and electric basses. Aspen is similarly soft, although slightly harder, and readily available and inexpensive. Butternut has a deeper hue than basswood and aspen and has a nice grain that is easy to carve, and thus friendly for beginners. It is also suitable for furniture. While more expensive than basswood, aspen, and butternut, black walnut
3570-417: Is prone to blotching when stained, so painting birch products is probably best. Birch is easily found at many home centers and is a relatively inexpensive hardwood. Popular and easy to work with, cherry is in high demand for its reddish-brown color and ease of staining and finishing. Cherry likely will not be at the local home center, but should be at a lumberyard for a somewhat expensive price. This hardwood
3675-673: Is relatively easy to work with and takes stain well, but its white to light brown color with a straight grain is visually appealing on its own. However, ash is much more difficult to find than other common woods, and will not be found at the local home center. Larger lumber yards should have it in stock. Hardwood of the European species Fagus sylvatica is widely used for furniture framing and carcase construction, in plywood, musical instruments (drum shells and piano blocks) and turned items like knobs. Whether yellow or white birch, these hardwoods are stable and easy to work with. Despite this, birch
3780-473: Is relatively plain and it does not stain well, so fir is commonly used when the finished product will be painted. While commonly used for building, this softwood would also be suitable for furniture-making. White pine , ponderosa, and southern yellow pine are common species used in furniture-making. White pine and ponderosa are typically used for indoor projects, while Southern yellow pine is recommended for outdoor projects due to its durability. This hardwood
3885-569: Is the durability of the wood, especially in regards to moisture. If the finished project will be exposed to moisture (e.g. outdoor projects) or high humidity or condensation (e.g. in kitchens or bathrooms), then the wood needs to be especially durable in order to prevent rot. Because of their oily qualities, many tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany are popular for such applications. While many woods can be used for carving, there are some clear favorites, including aspen, basswood, butternut, black walnut, and oak. Because it has almost no grain and
3990-610: Is the main component of particleboard . Research on health hazards comes from the field of occupational safety and health , and study of ventilation happens in indoor air quality engineering. Sawdust is an IARC group 1 Carcinogen . Two waste products, dust and chips, form at the working surface during woodworking operations such as sawing, milling and sanding. These operations both shatter lignified wood cells and break out whole cells and groups of cells. Shattering of wood cells creates dust, while breaking out of whole groups of wood cells creates chips. The more cell-shattering that occurs,
4095-492: Is usually built into, or placed close to, the waste disposal unit, or dust collector . Guidelines of performance for woodworking LEV systems exist, and these tie into occupational air quality regulations that exist in many countries. The LEV guidelines often referred to are those set by the ACIAH. Low-volume/high-velocity (LVHV) capture systems are specialised types of LEV that use an extractor hood designed as an integral part of
4200-948: The District of Columbia , Puerto Rico , the Virgin Islands , American Samoa , Guam , Northern Mariana Islands , Wake Island , Johnston Island , and the Outer Continental Shelf Lands as defined in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act. The OSH Act covers most private sector employers in all 50 states, the District of Columbia , and other U.S. jurisdictions—either directly through federal OSHA or through an OSHA-approved state plan. State plans are OSHA-approved job safety and health programs operated by individual states instead of federal OSHA. Federal OSHA approves and monitors all state plans and provides as much as fifty percent of
4305-654: The George W. Bush presidency on the specific issue of combustible dust explosions, Chemical Safety Board appointee Carolyn Merritt said: "The basic disappointment has been this attitude of no new regulation. They don't want the industry to be pestered. In some instances, the industry has to be pestered in order to comply." The director of OSHA is the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational Safety and Health. [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of
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4410-626: The Iron Age . Wooden idols from the La Tène period known from a sanctuary at the source of the Seine in France . There is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in ancient Egypt . Woodworking is depicted in many extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture (such as stools, chairs , tables , beds , chests ) have been preserved. Tombs represent
4515-522: The Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials. Among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls , Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen ( Germany ) provide some of
4620-594: The Nile valley resulted in the need for the importation of wood, notably cedar , but also Aleppo pine , boxwood and oak , starting from the Second Dynasty . Woodworking was essential to the Romans. It provided, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Wood also provided pipes, dye, waterproofing materials, and energy for heat. Although most examples of Roman woodworking have been lost,
4725-659: The OSH Act to make it a felony with much higher penalties to commit a willful violation that results in the death of a worker. Some local prosecutors are charging company executives with manslaughter and other felonies when criminal negligence leads to the death of a worker. A New York Times investigation in 2003 showed that over the 20-year period from 1982 to 2002, 2,197 workers died in 1,242 incidents in which OSHA investigators concluded that employers had willfully violated workplace safety laws. In 93% of these fatality cases arising from wilful violation, OSHA made no referral to
4830-581: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). All these organisations recognize wood dust as carcinogenic in relation to the nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses. People can be exposed to wood dust in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, or eye contact. The OSHA has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for wood dust exposure in
4935-608: The Spring and Autumn period (771 to 476 BC). Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane , chalk-line, and other tools to China. His teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (魯班經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban"). Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as flower pots , tables, altars , etc., and also contains extensive instructions concerning Feng Shui . It mentions almost nothing of
5040-740: The U.S. Department of Justice for criminal prosecution. The Times investigation found that OSHA had failed to pursue prosecution "even when employers had been cited before for the very same safety violation" and even in cases where multiple workers died. In interviews, current and former OSHA officials said that the low rates of criminal enforcement were the result of "a bureaucracy that works at every level to thwart criminal referrals. ... that fails to reward, and sometimes penalizes, those who push too hard for prosecution" and that " aggressive enforcement [was] suffocated by endless layers of review. OSHA has also been criticized for taking too long to develop new regulations. For instance, speaking about OSHA under
5145-433: The Virgin Islands . OSHA's protection applies to all federal agencies. Section 19 of the OSH Act makes federal agency heads responsible for providing safe and healthful working conditions for their workers. OSHA conducts inspections of federal facilities in response to workers' reports of hazards and under programs that target high-hazard federal workplaces. Federal agencies must have a safety and health program that meets
5250-517: The experience and the added character to the work, while some choose to use only hand tools simply for their own enjoyment. Hand tools are classified as tools that receive power only from the hands that are holding them. Edged hand woodworking tools need to be sharpened which is done using the sharpening jig and sharpening stone . A more novel method involves the use of sandpaper . The more common modern hand tools are: Power tools are tools that are powered by an external energy such as
5355-590: The 1960s, increasing economic expansion again led to rising injury rates, and the resulting political pressures led Congress to establish the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) on April 28, 1971, the date that the Occupational Health and Safety Act became effective. The new agency incorporated much of what had been the original Bureau of Labor Standards. George Guenther was appointed by Labor Secretary James D. Hodgson as
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#17327869020315460-503: The 25 statutes. WPP Investigators act as neutral fact-finders; they do not work for either the Complainant or Respondent. A WPP Investigator's job is to impartially gather and analyze all relevant evidence to determine whether unlawful whistleblower retaliation has occurred. Over the years, OSHA's WPP has been responsible for enforcing these laws that protect the rights of workers to speak up without fear of retaliation, regardless of
5565-495: The Department of Labor has worked on some work safety issues since its creation in 1934. Economic boom and associated labor turnover during World War II worsened work safety in nearly all areas of the United States economy, but after 1945 accidents again declined as long-term forces reasserted themselves. Additionally, new and powerful labor unions played an increasingly important role in worker safety post- World War II . In
5670-499: The United States and, as a result, are more expensive. Typically furniture such as tables and chairs is made using solid stock from hardwoods due to its strength and resistance to warping. Additionally, they also have a greater variety of grain patterns and color and take a finish better which allows the woodworker to exercise a great deal of artistic liberty. Hardwoods can be cut more cleanly and leave less residue on sawblades and other woodworking tools. Cabinet/fixture makers employ
5775-524: The United States — just a fraction of the nation's worksites. According to a report by AFL–CIO , it would take OSHA 129 years to inspect all workplaces under its jurisdiction. Enforcement plays an important part in OSHA's efforts to reduce workplace injuries, illnesses, and fatalities. Inspections are initiated without advance notice, conducted using on-site or telephone and facsimile investigations, performed by trained compliance officers and scheduled based on
5880-544: The United States, softwoods are typically cheaper and more readily available and accessible. Most softwoods are suitable for general construction, especially framing, trim, and finish work, and carcassing. Hardwoods are separated into two categories, temperate and tropical hardwoods, depending on their origin. Temperate hardwoods are found in the regions between the tropics and poles, and are of particular interest to wood workers for their cost-effective aesthetic appeal and sustainable sources. Tropical hardwoods are found within
5985-484: The Voluntary Protection Programs in 1982, which allow employers to apply as "model workplaces" to achieve special designation if they meet certain requirements. The OSH Act covers most private-sector employers and their workers, in addition to some public-sector employers and workers in the 50 states and certain territories and jurisdictions under federal authority. Those jurisdictions include
6090-640: The agency under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), which President Richard M. Nixon signed into law on December 29, 1970. OSHA's mission is to "assure safe and healthy working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education, and assistance." The agency is also charged with enforcing a variety of whistleblower statutes and regulations. OSHA's workplace safety inspections have been shown to reduce injury rates and injury costs without adverse effects on employment, sales, credit ratings, or firm survival. The Bureau of Labor Standards of
6195-544: The agency's first director. OSHA has run a number of training, compliance assistance, and health and safety recognition programs throughout its history. The OSHA Training Institute, which trains government and private sector health and safety personnel, began in 1972. In 1978, the agency began a grant-making program, now called the Susan Harwood Training Grant Program, to train workers and employers in reducing workplace hazards. OSHA started
6300-483: The air. Employers must also: Workers have the right to: Temporary workers must be treated like permanent employees . Staffing agencies and host employers share joint accountability for temporary workers. Both entities are therefore obligated to comply with workplace health and safety requirements and ensure worker safety and health. OSHA could hold both the host and temporary employers responsible for any violations. The Occupational Safety and Health Act grants OSHA
6405-465: The amount of material that is getting into the water from the site in relation to the total drainage area is minuscule. Other scientists have a different view, saying the "dilution is the solution to pollution" argument is no longer accepted in environmental science. The decomposition of a tree in a forest is similar to the impact of sawdust, but the difference is of scale. Sawmills may be storing thousands of cubic metres of wood residues in one place, so
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#17327869020316510-438: The authority to issue workplace health and safety regulations. These regulations include limits on hazardous chemical exposure, employee access to hazard information, requirements for the use of personal protective equipment, and requirements to prevent falls and hazards from operating dangerous equipment. The OSH Act's current Construction, General Industry, Maritime, and Agriculture standards are designed to protect workers from
6615-729: The citation, including whether a violation actually exists. Workers only have the right to challenge the deadline by which a problem must be resolved. Appeals of citations are heard by the independent Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC). In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused about 1,300 workers and their families to contract the virus, with four deaths, at the Smithfield Foods packing plant in Sioux Falls, South Dakota . The governor, Kristi Noem , resisted initiating and enforcing measures to protect workers and
6720-788: The community. The plant was fined $ 13,494 – the maximum allowed at the time – by OSHA for what was considered a single violation. OSHA carries out its enforcement activities through its 10 regional offices and 85 area offices. OSHA's regional offices are located in Boston , New York City , Philadelphia , Atlanta , Chicago , Dallas , Kansas City , Denver , San Francisco , and Seattle . Tracking and investigating workplace injuries and illnesses play an important role in preventing future injuries and illnesses. Under OSHA's Recordkeeping regulation, certain covered employers in high-hazard industries are required to prepare and maintain records of serious occupational injuries and illnesses. This information
6825-406: The concentration of airborne dust concentrations during woodworking, dust extraction systems are used. These can be divided into two types. The first are local exhaust ventilation systems, the second are room ventilation systems. Use of personal respirators , a form of personal protective equipment , can also isolate workers from dust. Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) systems rely on air pulled with
6930-536: The construction sector and furniture industry. Wood dust is known to be a human carcinogen, based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans. It has been demonstrated through human epidemiologic studies that exposure to wood dust increases the occurrence of cancer of the nose (nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses). An association of wood dust exposure and cancers of the nose has been observed in numerous case reports, cohort studies, and case control studies specifically addressing nasal cancer. To lower
7035-459: The consultation program, certain exemplary employers may request participation in OSHA's Safety and Health Achievement Recognition Program (SHARP). Eligibility for participation includes, but is not limited to, receiving a full-service, comprehensive consultation visit, correcting all identified hazards, and developing an effective safety and health management program. Worksites that receive SHARP recognition are exempt from programmed inspections during
7140-661: The country, with priority given to high-hazard worksites. Each year, responding to requests from small employers looking to create or improve their safety and health management programs, OSHA's On-site Consultation Program conducts over 29,000 visits to small business worksites covering over 1.5 million workers across the nation. On-site consultation services are separate from enforcement and do not result in penalties or citations. Consultants from state agencies or universities work with employers to identify workplace hazards, provide advice on compliance with OSHA standards, and assist in establishing safety and health management programs. Under
7245-484: The craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic types: hardwoods typified by tight grain and derived from broadleaf trees , softwoods from coniferous trees, and man-made materials such as plywood and MDF . Hardwoods , botanically known as angiosperms, are deciduous and shed their leaves annually with temperature changes. Softwoods come from trees botanically known as gymnosperms , which are coniferous, cone-bearing, and stay green year round. Although
7350-408: The determinations essential to rulemaking." Though it found that OSHA's findings and estimates are "subject to vigorous review and challenge", it stated that this is natural because "interested parties and experts involved in rulemakings have differing visions." OSHA has come under considerable criticism for the ineffectiveness of its penalties, particularly its criminal penalties. The maximum penalty
7455-516: The earliest Predynastic period . These joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period . Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing , though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Although different native acacias were used, as was the wood from the local sycamore and tamarisk trees, deforestation in
7560-447: The equatorial belt, including Africa, Asia, and South America. Hardwoods flaunt a higher density, around 1041 kg/m as a result of slower growing rates and is more stable when drying. As a result of its high density, hardwoods are typically heavier than softwoods but can also be more brittle. While there are an abundant number of hardwood species, only 200 are common enough and pliable enough to be used for woodworking. Hardwoods have
7665-404: The finer the dust particles that are produced. For example, sawing and milling are mixed cell shattering and chip forming processes, whereas sanding is almost exclusively cell shattering. A major use of sawdust is for particleboard; coarse sawdust may be used for wood pulp . Sawdust has a variety of other practical uses, including serving as a mulch , as an alternative to clay cat litter , or as
7770-591: The first examples of wooden hunting implements. Flint tools were used for carving. Since Neolithic times , carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark and wooden folding-chairs . The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal statues from
7875-605: The first major pieces of legislation signed by President George W. Bush , is the first instance that Congress has successfully used the Congressional Review Act to block regulation. Since 2001, OSHA has issued the following standards: OSHA is responsible for enforcing its standards on regulated entities. Compliance Safety and Health Officers carry out inspections and assess fines for regulatory violations. Inspections are planned for worksites in particularly hazardous industries. Inspections can also be triggered by
7980-405: The following priorities [highest to lowest]: imminent danger; catastrophes – fatalities or hospitalizations; worker complaints and referrals; targeted inspections – particular hazards, high injury rates; and follow-up inspections. Current workers or their representatives may file a complaint and ask OSHA to inspect their workplace if they believe that there is a serious hazard or that their employer
8085-566: The funding for each program. State-run safety and health programs are required to be at least as effective as the federal OSHA program. The following 22 states or territories have OSHA-approved state programs: Alaska , Arizona , California , Hawaii , Indiana , Iowa , Kentucky , Maryland , Michigan , Minnesota , Nevada , New Mexico , North Carolina , Oregon , Puerto Rico , South Carolina , Tennessee , Utah , Vermont , Virginia , Washington , and Wyoming . Federal OSHA provides coverage to certain workplaces specifically excluded from
8190-542: The hazard. In its first year of operation, OSHA was permitted to adopt regulations based on guidelines set by certain standards organizations, such as the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, without going through all of the requirements of a typical rule-making. OSHA is granted the authority to promulgate standards that prescribe the methods employers are legally required to follow to protect their workers from hazards. Before OSHA can issue
8295-490: The industry; thus, the vast majority of PELs have not been updated since 1971. The agency has issued non-binding, alternate occupational exposure limits that may better protect workers. Employers must also comply with the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act. This clause requires employers to keep their workplaces free of serious recognized hazards and is generally cited when no specific OSHA standard applies to
8400-627: The intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous. With the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed. The development of Computer Numeric Controlled ( CNC ) Machines, for example, has made it possible to mass-produce and reproduce products faster, with less waste, and often with more complex design than ever before. CNC wood routers can carve complicated and highly detailed shapes into flat stock, to create signs or art. Rechargeable power tools speed up creation of many projects and require much less body strength than in
8505-420: The issue becomes one of concentration. Of larger concern are substances such as lignins and fatty acids that protect trees from predators while they are alive, but can leach into water and poison wildlife. Those types of things remain in the tree and, as the tree decays, they slowly are broken down. But when sawyers are processing a large volume of wood and large concentrations of these materials permeate into
8610-422: The kind needed, oak can probably be found at a local home center or a lumberyard for a bit pricier than other hardwoods. With strength, sturdiness, and durability, maple is a common material for furniture for the bedroom and even china cabinets. Maple is moisture-resistant and frequently displays stand-out swirls in the wood grain, an aesthetically pleasing differentiator from other hardwoods. While most commonly
8715-438: The literary record preserved much of the contemporary knowledge. Vitruvius dedicates an entire chapter of his De architectura to timber, preserving many details. Pliny , while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants, providing a wealth of information on trees and their uses. The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (魯班) and his wife Lady Yun, from
8820-403: The material it comes from; sawdust produced from natural wood is different from that of sawdust produced from processed wood or wood veneer . Breathing airborne wood dust may cause allergic respiratory symptoms, mucosal and non-allergic respiratory symptoms, and cancer. In the US, lists of carcinogenic factors are published by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),
8925-524: The metric system, this is usually measured in mg/m (milligram per cubic metre) A study to estimate occupational exposure to inhalable wood dust by country, industry, the level of exposure and type of wood dust in 25 member states of the European Union (EU-25) found that in 2000–2003, about 3.6 million workers (2.0% of the employed EU-25 population) were occupationally exposed to inhalable wood dust. The highest exposure levels were estimated to occur in
9030-489: The more common styles are listed below. Traditional furniture styles usually include styles that have been around for long periods of time and have shown a mark of wealth and luxury for centuries. More modern furniture styles are commonly used over the past few hundred years. See also Wood: Properties and Tonewood: Properties . Historically, woodworkers relied upon the woods native to their region, until transportation and trade innovations made more exotic woods available to
9135-421: The naked human eye. Particles of concern for human respiratory health are those <100 μm (where the symbol < means ‘less than’). Zhang (2004) has defined the size of indoor particulates according to respiratory fraction: Particles which precipitate in the vicinity of the mouth and eyes, and get into the organism, are defined as the inhalable fraction, that is total dust. Smaller fractions, penetrating into
9240-444: The national average for their respective industries. In VPP, management, labor, and OSHA work cooperatively and proactively to prevent fatalities, injuries, and illnesses through a system focused on: hazard prevention and control, worksite analysis, training, and management commitment and worker involvement. OSHA's On-site Consultation Program offers free and confidential advice to small and medium-sized businesses in all states across
9345-468: The non-cartilage respiratory tract, are defined as respirable dust. Dust emitted in the wood industry is characterized by the dimensional disintegration of particles up to 5 μm, and that is why they precipitate mostly in the nasal cavity, increasing the risk of cancer of the upper respiratory tract. The parameter most commonly used to characterize exposures to wood dust in air is total wood dust concentration, in mass per unit volume. In countries that use
9450-532: The past, for example when boring multiple holes. Skilled fine woodworking, however, remains a craft pursued by many. There remains demand for hand crafted work such as furniture and arts, however with rate and cost of production, the cost for consumers is much higher. Modern woodcarving usually refers to works of wood art produced by woodcarvers in the form of contemporary art. This type of wood carving often combines traditional techniques with more modern artistic styles and concepts. Modern woodcarving can be produced in
9555-581: The period that the SHARP certification is valid. OSHA also provides compliance assistance through its national and area offices. Through hundreds of publications in a variety of languages, website safety, and health topics pages, and through compliance assistance staff, OSHA provides information to employers and workers on specific hazards and OSHA rights and responsibilities. A 2012 study in Science found that OSHA's random workplace safety inspections caused
9660-732: The relationship of these laws to occupational safety and health matters. OSHA has developed several training, compliance assistance, and health and safety recognition programs throughout its history. The OSHA Training Institute, which trains government and private sector health and safety personnel, began in 1972. In 1978, the agency began a grant-making program, now called the Susan Harwood Training Grant Program, to train workers and employers in identifying and reducing workplace hazards. The Voluntary Protection Program (VPP) recognizes employers and workers in private industry and federal agencies who have implemented effective safety and health management programs and maintain injury and illness rates below
9765-439: The runoff, the toxicity they cause is harmful to a broad range of organisms. Wood flour is finely pulverized wood that has a consistency fairly equal to sand or sawdust, but can vary considerably, with particles ranging in dimensions from a fine powder to roughly that of a grain of rice. Most wood flour manufacturers are able to create batches of wood flour that have the same consistency throughout. All high quality wood flour
9870-464: The same effect on compliance as 210 inspections. Much of the debate about OSHA regulations and enforcement policies revolve around the cost of regulations and enforcement, versus the actual benefit in reduced worker injury, illness, and death. A 1995 study of several OSHA standards by the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) found that OSHA relies "generally on methods that provide a credible basis for
9975-401: The same standards as private employers. OSHA issues “virtual fines” to federal agencies – following an inspection where violations are found, OSHA issues a press release stating the size of the fine would be if the federal agency were a private sector employer. Under a 1998 amendment, the OSH Act covers the U.S. Postal Service the same as any private sector employer. The OSH Act does not cover
10080-1062: The self-employed, immediate family members of farm employers, or workplace hazards regulated by another federal agency (for example, the Mine Safety and Health Administration , the Department of Energy , or Coast Guard ). Employers have the responsibility to provide a safe workplace. By law, employers must provide their workers with a workplace that does not have serious hazards, and they must follow all OSH Act safety and health standards. Employers are obligated to identify and rectify safety and health problems. The OSH Act further requires that employers must first attempt to eliminate or reduce hazards by making feasible changes in working conditions, rather than relying solely on personal protective equipment such as masks, gloves, or earplugs. Examples of effective ways to eliminate or reduce risks include switching to safer chemicals, enclosing processes to trap harmful fumes, or using ventilation systems to clean
10185-542: The subaltern medical staff, who served Dr. Josef Mengele , subsisted on "bread made from wild chestnuts sprinkled with sawdust". Airborne sawdust and sawdust accumulations present a number of health and safety hazards. Wood dust becomes a potential health problem when, for example, the wood particles, from processes such as sanding, become airborne and are inhaled. Wood dust is a known human carcinogen . Certain woods and their dust contain toxins that can produce severe allergic reactions. The composition of sawdust depends on
10290-445: The technology is not widespread. Festool is one manufacturer of portable power tools using LVHV ventilation integrated into the tool design. If suitably designed, general ventilation can also be used as a control of airborne dust. General ventilation can often help reduce skin and clothing contamination, and dust deposition on surfaces. ″There was once a time when sawmill operators could barely give away their sawdust. They dumped it in
10395-399: The tendency of felled softwood to shrink and swell as it dries. Softwoods usually have a lower density, around 432–592 kg/m , which can compromise its strength. Density, however, does vary within both softwoods and hardwoods depending on the wood's geographical origin and growth rate. However, the lower density of softwoods also allows it to have a greater strength with lighter weight. In
10500-436: The tool or positioned very close to the operating point of the cutting tool. The hood is designed to provide high capture velocities, often greater than 50 m/s (10,000 fpm) at the contaminant release point. This high velocity is accompanied by airflows often less than 0.02m3/s (50 cfm) resulting from the small face area of the hood that is used. These systems have come into favour for portable power tools, although adoption of
10605-478: The use of plywood and other man made panel products. Some furniture, such as the Windsor chair involve green woodworking , shaping with wood while it contains its natural moisture prior to drying. Cedars are strong, aromatic softwoods that are capable of enduring outdoor elements, the most common of which is the western red cedar. Western red cedar can sustain wet environments without succumbing to rot, and as
10710-490: The whistleblower provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act and 24 other statutes protecting workers who report violations of various airline, commercial motor carrier, consumer product, environmental, financial reform, food safety, health care reform, nuclear, pipeline, public transportation agency, maritime and securities laws. Unlike OSHA's Safety Enforcement complaints (or referrals) being completely anonymous, OSHA's whistleblower investigations can not be anonymous as
10815-402: The woods or incinerated it just to get rid of the stuff. These days, they have ready markets for sawdust…″, according to a report in 2008. For example, sawdust is used by biomass power plants as fuel or is sold to dairy farmers as animal bedding. Woodworking Along with stone , clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans . Microwear analysis of
10920-449: The workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The NIOSH has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1 mg/m over an 8-hour workday. Water-borne bacteria digest organic material in leachate, but use up much of the available oxygen. This high biochemical oxygen demand can suffocate fish and other organisms. There is an equally detrimental effect on beneficial bacteria, so it
11025-401: Was used as the filler in ¼-inch thick Edison Diamond Discs . Wood flour has found a use in plugging small through-wall holes in leaking main condenser ( heat exchanger ) tubes at electrical power generating stations via injecting small quantities of the wood flour into the cooling water supply lines. Some of the injected wood flour clogs the small holes while the remainder exits the station in
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