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43-580: In 1865 Congress approved an expedition to build a road from the Niobrara River to Virginia City, Montana . Secretary of the Interior James Usher appointed Lt. Col. James A. Sawyers head of this expedition with a military escort of two companies of "Galvanized Yankees" of the 5th U.S. Volunteer Infantry . At roughly the same time General Patrick E. Connor launched his Powder River Expedition . Sawyers moved his expedition north from

86-485: A windbreak around homesteads and during early Arbor Day events during early settlement. Over time, the trees spread to replace large areas of grassland, leading to ecosystem collapse on ranchlands. The blowout penstemon ( Penstemon haydenii ) is an endangered species, found only in the Sandhills and in similar environments in central Wyoming . The blowout penstemon stabilizes the soil where wind erosion exposes

129-717: A 25-mile (40 km) stretch of the river. Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge near Valentine covers 19,000 acres (77 km ). Partnering in the effort to conserve the Sandhills are the Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, West Central Research and Extension Station, the Nature Conservancy of Nebraska, the Natural Resources Conservation Service, the Nebraska Natural Heritage Program,

172-553: Is Hisse Yovi Yoe , meaning "surprise river"; in Pawnee , Kíckatariʾ ; and in Lakota , Wakpá Tȟáŋka , meaning "great river". Nebraska Sandhills The Sandhills , often written Sand Hills , is a region of mixed-grass prairie on grass-stabilized sand dunes in north-central Nebraska , covering just over one quarter of the state. The dunes were designated a National Natural Landmark in 1984. The boundaries of

215-677: Is impounded by the Merritt Dam and irrigates about 34,540 acres (13,980 ha) in the area of Valentine, Nebraska . The project is part of the Ainsworth Unit of the Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Program , also operated by the USBR. Cornell Dam, built in 1915 at the confluence of Minnechaduza Creek near Valentine, generated power until 1985. The following year the dam was acquired by the U.S. Department of

258-544: The Dust Bowl . The plant-anchored dunes of the Sandhills were long considered an irreclaimable desert. In the 1870s, cattlemen began to discover their potential as rangeland for Longhorn cattle . The fragility of the sandy soil makes the area unsuitable for cultivation of crops. Attempts at farming were made in the region in the late 1870s and again around 1890. The 1904 Kinkaid Act allowed homesteaders to claim 640 acres (260 ha; 2.6 km ) of land, rather than

301-540: The Missouri northwest of Niobrara in northern Knox County , just upstream of Lewis and Clark Lake . Its total drainage basin is about 11,580 square miles (30,000 km ). Although the annual runoff is low relative to the size of its drainage basin, the Niobrara has a stronger and more consistent flow than many other streams in the region. An estimated 70 percent of the river's water results from seepage from

344-555: The Ogallala Aquifer that underlies the area, with the remaining 30 percent from precipitation. The river is highest in the spring and early summer (February through April) and lowest in early fall (August and September). By late fall, river levels begin to rise as demands for river water for irrigation subside. The Niobrara's average discharge between 1958 and 2013, measured at the U.S. Geological Survey stream gage at Verdel, Nebraska , 14.8 miles (23.8 km) above

387-719: The Pine Ridge country of Sioux County , then east through Agate Fossil Beds National Monument , past Marsland , and through Box Butte Reservoir . The stream flows east across northern Nebraska, near the northern edge of the Sandhills and past Valentine . It is joined by the Snake River about 13 miles (21 km) southwest of Valentine. In north-central Nebraska it is joined by the Keya Paha River approximately 6 miles (10 km) west of Butte . The river joins

430-625: The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), is the only major dam on the Niobrara River proper. Located in Dawes County in western Nebraska, the dam is part of the Mirage Flats Project, which irrigates 11,670 acres (4,720 ha) on the north side of the Niobrara River. Dunlap Diversion Dam, 8 miles (13 km) below Box Butte, diverts water through a 13-mile (21 km) canal to the farmland. The Snake River tributary

473-674: The U.S. states of Wyoming and Nebraska . The river drains one of the most arid sections of the Great Plains , and has a low flow for a river of its length. The Niobrara's watershed includes the northern tier of Nebraska Sandhills , a small south-central section of South Dakota , as well as a small area of eastern Wyoming. The river rises in the High Plains of Wyoming, in southern Niobrara County . The Niobrara flows east as an intermittent stream past Lusk and southeast into northwestern Nebraska . It then flows southeast across

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516-638: The University of Nebraska , and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . Turner Enterprises has acquired 445,000 acres (180,000 ha) of land in Nebraska. His extensive ranches for grazing cattle are known for their bison while focusing on sustainable practices such as rotational grazing of the grasslands . In 2021, Ted Turner announced that an 80,000-acre (32,000 ha) ranch he owns in western Nebraska would be turned over to

559-500: The western meadowlark , the state bird of Nebraska. Valentine National Wildlife Refuge , located about 20 miles (32 km) south of Valentine, encompasses 71,516 acres (28,941 ha). Crescent Lake National Wildlife Refuge in the central Panhandle covers 45,849 acres (18,554 ha). The Nature conservancy 's Niobrara Valley Preserve in Cherry, Brown, and Keya Paha counties covers 60,000 acres (202 km ) and includes

602-481: The 160 acres (65 ha; 0.65 km ) allowed by the 1862 Homestead Act . Nearly nine million acres (36,000 km ) were claimed by "Kinkaiders" between 1910 and 1917. Some of the Kinkaiders farmed the land, but these attempts generally failed. This included Nebraska's largest black settlement, DeWitty , which was located in southeast Cherry County until the 1930s. Many of the largest ranches broke up about

645-521: The 9 miles of river that flow through the Fort Niobrara Refuge primarily for wilderness and wildlife habitat, but allows recreation downstream from Cornell Dam. The National Park Service manages the remaining 67 miles, acting as a facilitator for resource protection by landowners and river users, providing law enforcement and visitor education services, and coordinating resource management activities. The Box Butte Dam, completed in 1946 by

688-519: The Arapaho of Chief Black Bear just 4 days prior. As the wagons crossed the river, Arapaho warriors attacked and scattered the expedition's cattle herd. The cavalry unlimbered a howitzer while Sawyers corralled the wagons. The Arapaho appeared to have left and Sawyers continued along the trail but was attacked a second time. Retreating to the river they were attacked trying to find an alternate route downstream. Heading back upstream Sawyers corralled

731-532: The Arapaho were hoping to have their animals back, Sawyers was looking for military reinforcements to continue his expedition. For several days Sawyers’ men and the Arapaho faced off at each other through bad weather. On September 12 with no word from Connor the men of Sawyer’ expedition mutinied and replaced Sawyers in command. Under new command the expedition broke away from the Arapaho and began its return to Fort Connor on September 13. The withdrawal did not last long as reinforcements sent from Connor arrived along

774-596: The Bozeman Trail, 1863-1866 2000 Johnson, Dorothy M. The Bloddy Bozeman: The Perilous Trail to Montana's Gold 1983 Niobrara River The Niobrara River ( / ˌ n aɪ . ə ˈ b r ær ə / ; Omaha–Ponca : Ní Ubthátha khe , pronounced [nĩꜜ ubɫᶞaꜜɫᶞa kʰe] , literally "water spread-out horizontal-the" or "The Wide-Spreading Water") is a tributary of the Missouri River , approximately 568 miles (914 km) long, running through

817-489: The Interior . Although officially decommissioned, the dam remains standing. The feasibility of removing the defunct dam has been studied, although the accumulation of sediment behind the dam, which may include high levels of chemicals from pesticides, may be harmful to the river environment if released. Spencer Dam , about 50 miles (80 km) from the mouth of the Niobrara, was the last operational hydroelectric plant on

860-468: The Ogallala Aquifer. Precipitation is insufficient to keep ponds and lakes permanent with the low humidity and high evaporation rates. The natural reservoirs are also primarily confined to a few regions of the Sandhills with the vast majority located in northern Garden County. The lakes and ponds are mainly sandy-bottomed and some contain many species of fish. Very few are used to water cattle as

903-461: The Sand Hills (which includes a high concentration of wetlands of special concern, a sensitive ecosystem, and extensive areas of very shallow groundwater) and provided additional context and information about those characteristics. The concern about the proposed route's impact on the Sand Hills of Nebraska has increased significantly over time, and has resulted in the Nebraska legislature convening

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946-419: The Sandhills are variously defined by different organizations. Depending on the definition, the region's area can be as small as 19,600 mi (50,760 km ) or as large as 23,600 mi (61,100 km ). Dunes in the Sandhills may exceed 330 ft (100 m) in height. The average elevation of the region gradually increases from about 1,800 ft (550 m) in the east to about 3,600 ft (1,100 m) in

989-499: The Sandhills as an ecoregion , distinct from other grasslands of the Great Plains. According to their assessment, as much as 85% of the ecoregion is intact natural habitat, the highest level in the Great Plains. This is chiefly due to the lack of crop production: most of the Sandhills land has never been plowed. The Sandhills is classified as a semi-arid region, with average annual rainfall varying from 23 inches (580 mm) in

1032-402: The Sandhills. Most are native, with only 7% exotics — half the percentage of most other prairie systems. Most of the "exotics" are invasive species and considered noxious weeds and must be destroyed by landowners. One species threatening the ecosystem is the eastern redcedar . Native to the region but controlled by wildfires prior to European settlement, the trees were planted in great numbers as

1075-405: The bare sand and creates a blowout, but is choked out when other species begin to recolonize. Grazing and land management practices used by Sandhills ranchers have reduced natural erosion, thus destroying some of the plant's habitat. Many of the plants of the Sandhills are sand-tolerant species from short-grass, mixed-grass, and tallgrass prairies; plants from all three of these can be found within

1118-800: The cities, and ranches are consolidated. A number of small towns remain in the region. The Sandhills contain a large array of plant and animal life. Minimal crop production has led to limited land fragmentation; the resulting extensive and continuous habitat for plant and animal species has largely preserved the biodiversity of the area. The Sandhills are home to 314 vertebrate species including mule deer, whitetail deer, jackrabbits, pronghorn antelope, elk, coyotes, red fox, Western meadowlarks (the Nebraska state bird), prairie dogs, bull snakes , prairie rattlesnakes , ringnecked pheasant , sharp-tailed grouse , badgers, ground squirrels, skunks, native bat species and many fish species. The Sandhills' thousands of ponds and lakes are spring-fed surface water areas of

1161-479: The concentration of concerns regarding the environmental sensitivities of the current proposed route through the Sand Hills area of Nebraska, the Department has determined it needs to undertake an in-depth assessment of potential alternative routes in Nebraska [...] The comments were consistent with the information in the final Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) about the unique combination of characteristics in

1204-463: The confluence of the Niobrara and Missouri Rivers despite Connor's warnings against moving into hostile Indian territory in the midst of a military expedition. Sawyers was ambushed at Bone Pile Creek near Gillette, Wyoming and was forced to seek refuge at Fort Connor . Colonel James H. Kidd, commander at Fort Connor, detached a portion of the 6th Michigan Volunteer Cavalry Regiment as a new escort for Sawyers to continue his expedition. Sawyers left

1247-401: The current climate. Much of the area was a scrub desert , with desert-like conditions extending to several other states. Current global warming may make the grassland climate more unstable, giving way to desert given more fires, mild drought and erosion; UCAR simulations based on evapotranspiration support a Palmer Drought Index lower than -15, many times more severe than Texas during

1290-627: The east to less than 17 inches (430 mm) of rain in the west. Temperatures range from lows of −30 °F (−34 °C) to highs of 105 °F (41 °C). Paleoclimate proxy data and computer simulations reveal that the Nebraska Sandhills likely had active sand dunes as recently as the Medieval Warm Period , when temperatures in the North Atlantic region were about 1 °C (1.8 °F) warmer than

1333-457: The ecosystem. These plants have helped to stabilize the sand dunes, creating an ecosystem beneficial for other plants and animals. Better land management and grazing practices by the ranchers of the region have led to less erosion over time, which has kept the natural landscape of the area mostly intact. Many species of insect are found in the Sandhills, including dragonflies, grasshoppers and mosquitos. There are also many types of spiders. Due to

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1376-585: The fort and followed the military road recently blazed by General Connor's troops until it intersected with the Bozeman Trail . On August 31, Captain Osmer Cole from the 6th Michigan was killed by Arapaho warriors. Sawyers’ wagon train nevertheless continued to a ford on the Tongue River and began crossing September 1. Unbeknownst to Sawyers, just a few miles from the ford, Connor had attacked

1419-722: The mouth of the Keya Paha to its confluence with the Missouri marked the boundary between Nebraska and the Dakota Territory . A 76-mile (122 km) stretch of the Niobrara River in central Nebraska, from the town of Valentine east to Nebraska State Highway 137, has been designated as the Niobrara National Scenic River since 1991. It is managed by the Department of the Interior (U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and National Park Service) to protect

1462-453: The mouth, is 1,757 cubic feet per second (49.8 m /s). The highest flow recorded was 39,100 cubic feet per second (1,110 m /s) on March 27, 1960. The lowest daily mean was 102 cubic feet per second (2.9 m /s) on November 13, 1960. The lower Niobrara valley is the traditional home of the Ponca tribe of Native Americans. Between 1861 and 1882, the stretch of the Niobrara River from

1505-538: The newly created Turner Institute of Ecoagriculture. Turner and the institute publicly announced that the nonprofit would continue to pay property taxes on the land. A November 10, 2011 press release on the Keystone Pipeline Project Presidential Permit Review Process, announced that the U. S. State Department would assess TransCanada Keystone XL Project (Hardisty-Baker-Steele City) proposal. "[G]iven

1548-541: The river. The dam was built in 1927 and was operated by the Nebraska Public Power District . It includes two Westinghouse generators, with a combined capacity of 3,000 kW. In a 2015 agreement with Nebraska local and state government entities, NPPD agreed to decommission the dam in 2017. The dam was breached by flooding caused by a March 2019 storm . In the Cheyenne language , the river

1591-572: The road back to Fort Connor under the command of Captain Albert E. Brown. With Brown's help Sawyers reasserted his authority over the expedition and turned back toward Virginia City. This third attempt to reach Virginia City encountered almost no hostile Natives. A battlefield monument stands along U.S. Route 14 in Wyoming near Dayton . Doyle, Susan Journeys to the Land of Gold: Emigrant Diaries from

1634-428: The same time due to regulations against fencing federal range lands. Some development of cropland agriculture in the modern era has occurred through the use of center-pivot irrigation systems. In the 21st century, the Sandhills are a productive cattle ranching area, supporting over 530,000 beef cattle. The human population of the region continues to decline as older generations die out, younger generations move to

1677-525: The wagons, but two members of his team were killed and he decided to move and corral his wagons for a third time. Sawyers was in desperate measures by nightfall. The next morning the Arapaho leaders met with Sawyers. The Arapaho had been part of the group recently attacked by General Connor and believed Sawyers’ expedition was military reinforcements. The Arapaho chiefs stated Connor's troops had captured their ponies and they wanted them back. The Arapaho and Sawyers agreed to send 3 men each to find Connor. While

1720-570: The warm stagnant nature of both alkaline and freshwater lakes throughout the region, coupled with the wetland marsh areas, mosquito populations increase during the summer months. The Sandhills are part of the Central Flyway for many species of migratory birds, and the region's many bodies of water give them places to rest. The ponds and lakes of the region are lay-over points for migratory cranes (particularly Sandhill cranes ), geese, and many species of ducks. Species found year-round include

1763-485: The water is usually shallow, warm, brackish, turbid, saline, alkaline or conceals "quicksand" cattle would become stuck in. Windmills and solar-powered submersible electric pumps fed by the easily-accessible aquifer filling cement-bottom steel stock tanks up to 30 feet in diameter are used to supply livestock with cool, fresh water on a daily basis. Some lakes in the area are alkaline and support several species of phyllopod shrimp. 720 different species of plants are found in

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1806-517: The water quality, geologic, paleontologic, fish and wildlife, scenic and recreation values. Most of the lands within the boundary of the National Scenic River are, and will remain, in private ownership. Management is based upon working with private, county, state and federal landowners and stakeholders to coordinate protection of the river while ensuring a quality experience for river visitors. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service manages

1849-523: The west. The Sandhills sit atop the massive Ogallala Aquifer ; thus both temporary and permanent shallow lakes are common in low-lying valleys between the grass-stabilized dunes prevalent in the Sandhills. The eastern and central sections of the region are drained by tributaries of the Loup River and the Niobrara River , while the western section is largely composed of small interior drainage basins. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) designated

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