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48-589: The Jutland Chronicle gives evidence that Saxo was born in Zealand . It is unlikely he was born before 1150 and it is supposed that his death could have occurred around 1220. His name Saxo was a common name in medieval Denmark. The name Grammaticus ("the learned") was first given to him in the Jutland Chronicle and the Sjælland Chronicle makes reference to Saxo cognomine Longus ("with

96-467: A Canon of Lund, collaborated with Jodocus Badius Ascensius , a fellow enthusiast, to print the work of Saxo Grammaticus early in the sixteenth century. This was the first major step toward securing the historical significance of Gesta Danorum . Starting from that point, the knowledge of it began to spread within the academic community. Oliver Elton , who was the first to translate the first nine books of Gesta Danorum into English , wrote that Saxo

144-560: A comprehensive chronicle of the history of the Danes. In 1171, Absalon issued the "Zealand church law" ( Danish : Sjællandske Kirkelov ), which reduced the number of Canonical Law offenses for which the church could fine the public, while instituting the tithe payment system. Violation of the law was specified as subject to a secular legal process. Archbishop Eskil returned from exile in 1167. Eskil agreed on canonizing Valdemar's father Knud Lavard in 1170, with Absalon assisting him at

192-520: A legacy as the foremost politician and churchfather of Denmark in the 12th century. Absalon was equally great as churchman, statesman, and warrior. His policy of expansion was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic for three generations. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages , whose sole indication of their religious role

240-463: A slightly earlier history of Denmark than Saxo's, describes his contemporary, Saxo, as his contubernalis , meaning tent-comrade . This gives evidence that Saxo and Sven might have soldiered in the Hird or royal guard, since Sven used the word contubernium in reference to them. There is also a Saxo to be found on a list of clergy at Lund , where there was a Sven recorded as Archdeacon. Likewise there

288-611: A small work written in Latin , completed in c.  1143 , spanning from the introduction of Christianity in Denmark to the author's own time. The next to be published was Brevis historia regum Dacie , written by Sven Aggesen (b. c.  1140–1150 – death unknown), thought to have been finished in 1186 or 1187 (the last event described happened in 1185), covering the years 300–1185. Saxo's works were received enthusiastically by Renaissance era scholars, who were curious about

336-601: Is Dean Saxo who died in 1190; however, the date does not match what is known about Saxo. Both arguments, for a secular or religious Saxo, would confirm that he was well educated; as clergy, he would have received training in Latin and sons of great men were often sent to Paris . Saxo comes from a warrior family and writes that he is himself committed to being a soldier. He tells us that he follows "the ancient right of hereditary service", and that his father and grandfather "were recognized frequenters of your renowned sire's (Valdemar I) war camp". Saxo's education and ability support

384-645: Is a small Danish historical work from the middle of the 14th century, written in Latin . It comes with a smaller summary edition, about one-fourth the size of the original, of Saxo ’s Gesta Danorum , known as Compendium Saxonis . The original manuscript is lost; however the work survives in four different handwritten copies, about a hundred years younger. One of them was written by a monk from Odense in 1431. The stories of Chronica Jutensis begin approximately where Gesta Danorum ends, in King Canute VI 's reign, just before King Valdemar II gains

432-466: Is not known. It is, however, thought that he was from Jutland because Jutland events and persons are thoroughly described and it seems that the writer is confident with both the topography and persons of Jutland. Latin copies reside in: Absalon Absalon ( c.  1128  – 21 March 1201) was a Danish statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church who served as

480-494: Is seen to have had very warlike values. He glorifies the heroes that made their names in battle far more than those who made peace. His view of the period of peace under King Frode is very low and is only satisfied when King Knut brings back the ancestral customs. Saxo's chronology of kings extends up to Saint Canute and his son Valdemar I. Saxo finished the history with the Preface, which he wrote last, in c.  1216 under

528-588: The Angles . He also tells the stories of various other Danish heroes, many of whom interact with the Scandinavian gods. Saxo's "heathen" gods, however, are not always good characters. They are sometimes treacherous, such as in the story of Harald, legendary king of the Danes , who was taught the ways of warfare by Odin and then was betrayed and killed by the god, who then brought him to Valhalla . Saxo's world

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576-675: The Holy Roman Empire . Absalon reformed the Danish church organisation to closer match Holy See praxis , and worked to keep Denmark a close ally of the Holy See. However, during the schism between Pope Alexander III and Antipope Victor IV , Absalon stayed loyal to Valdemar even as he joined the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in supporting Victor IV. This caused a split within

624-536: The bishop of Roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and archbishop of Lund from 1178 until his death. He was the foremost politician and church father of Denmark in the second half of the 12th century, and was the closest advisor of King Valdemar I of Denmark . He was a key figure in the Danish policies of territorial expansion in the Baltic Sea , Europeanization in close relationship with the Holy See , and reform in

672-568: The byname 'the tall ' "). He lived in a period of warfare and Danish expansion, led by Archbishop Absalon and the Valdemars. The Danes were also being threatened by the Wends who were making raids across the border and by sea. Valdemar I had also just won a civil war and later Valdemar II led an expedition across the Elbe to invade Holstein . Sven Aggesen , a Danish nobleman and author of

720-556: The peasantry , and instituted tithes. He was a harsh and effective ruler, who cleared all Orthodox Christian liturgical remnants in favour of Papal standards. A rebellion in the Scanian peasantry forced him to flee to Zealand in 1180, but he returned and subdued the Scanians with the help of Valdemar. Valdemar died in 1182 and was succeeded by his son, Canute VI , whom Absalon also served as counsellor. Under Canute VI, Absalon

768-574: The Abbey, apart from Fjenneslev which went to Esbern Snarre. He had already given Copenhagen to the Bishopric of Roskilde. Absalon was interred at Sorø Abbey , and was succeeded as Archbishop of Lund by Anders Sunesen. Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum was not finished until after the death of Absalon, but Absalon was one of the chief heroic figures of the chronicle, which was to be the main source of knowledge about early Danish history. Absalon left

816-511: The Danish crusades against the Wends . During the Danish civil war, Denmark had been open to coastal raids by the Wends. It was Absalon's intention to clear the Baltic Sea of the Wendish pirates who inhabited its southern littoral zone , which was later called Pomerania . The pirates had raided the Danish coasts during the civil war of Sweyn III, Canute V, and Valdemar, to the point where at

864-515: The Danish church, as it possibly forced Eskil of Lund into exile around 1161, despite Abaslon's attempts to keep the Danish church united. It was contrary to Absalon's advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Dole in 1162. When Valdemar returned to Denmark, he was convinced to strengthen the Danevirke fortifications at the German border, with

912-431: The Danish fleet. But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dziwnów on the isle of Wolin . Absalon's last military exploit came in 1184, off Stralsund at Whitsun , when he soundly defeated a Pomeranian fleet that had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromar of Rügen . Absalon's main political goal was to free Denmark from entanglements with

960-411: The Wends and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. Absalon, with only Bishop Sweyn of Aarhus and twelve " housecarls ", thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of

1008-580: The Wends, sometimes with the help of German duke Henry the Lion , sometimes in opposition to him. In 1168 the chief Wendish fortress at Arkona in Rügen , containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit , was conquered . The Wends agreed to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona, Absalon proceeded by sea to Charenza , in the midst of Rügen, the political capital of

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1056-616: The accession of Valdemar one-third of Denmark lay wasted and depopulated. Absalon formed a guardian fleet, built coastal defenses, and led several campaigns against the Wends. He even advocated forgiving the earlier enemies of Valdemar, which helped stabilize Denmark internally. The first expedition against the Wends conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160. These expeditions were successful, but brought no lasting victories. What started out as mere retribution, eventually evolved into full-fledged campaigns of expansion with religious motives. In 1164 began twenty years of crusades against

1104-798: The canon William of Æbelholt at the Abbey of St Genevieve , whom he later made abbot of Eskilsø Abbey . Absalon first appears in Saxo Grammaticus 's contemporary chronicle Gesta Danorum at the end of the civil war, in the brokering of the peace agreement between Sweyn III and Valdemar at St. Alban's Priory in Odense . He was a guest at the subsequent Roskilde banquet given in 1157 by Sweyn for his rivals Canute V and Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination by Sweyn on this occasion, and escaped to Jutland , whither Sweyn followed them. Absalon probably did not take part in

1152-604: The castle of his father, and was brought up alongside his older brother Esbern Snare and the young prince Valdemar, who later became King Valdemar I of Denmark . During the civil war following the death of Eric III of Denmark in 1146, Absalon travelled abroad to study theology in Paris , while Esbern fought for Valdemar's ascension to the throne. In Paris, he was influenced by the Gregorian Reform ideals of churchly independence from monarchical rule. He also befriended

1200-444: The death of his patron Absalon in 1202. What eventually came to be the first nine books of Gesta Danorum , were actually written after the death of Absalon , and they focus largely on mythology, for which Saxo has been criticized. The contrast to the seven books written during the lifetime of Absalon is "'enormous,' leading the main core of scholars to divide the two parts into mythical (books I–IX) and historical (books X–XVI),

1248-525: The feast. When Eskil stepped down as Archbishop of Lund in 1177, he chose Absalon as his successor. Absalon initially resisted the new position, as he did not want to lose his power position on Zealand, but complied with Papal orders to do so in 1178. By a unique Papal dispensation, Absalon was allowed to simultaneously maintain his post as Bishop of Roskilde. As the Archbishop of Lund, Absalon utilized ombudsmen from Zealand, demanded unfree labour from

1296-487: The following battle of Grathe Heath in 1157, where Sweyn was defeated and slain. This led to Valdemar ascending to the Danish throne. On Good Friday 1158, bishop Asser of Roskilde  [ Wikidata ] died, and Absalon was eventually elected bishop of Roskilde on Zealand with the help of Valdemar, as the king's reward for Hvide family support. Absalon was a close counsellor of Valdemar, and chief promoter of

1344-429: The fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit , caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen. Rügen was then subjected to Absalon's Bishopric of Roskilde. The destruction of this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon to considerably reduce

1392-602: The four cardinal virtues in Gesta Danorum , have studied other elaborations and schemes in the writings of Saxo. Some of them have concluded that Saxo, instead of simply distorting allegedly true Nordic and Baltic traditions and/or beliefs, was creating something new, attuned to the approaching 13th century Danish race to strengthen institutions and engage in the Northern Crusades . Importantly, Saxo Grammaticus appears to have changed his agenda after

1440-432: The history of which the Archbishop had been a part. Saxo's work was not strictly a history or a simple record of old tales, but rather, as Friis-Jensen puts it, "a product of Saxo's own mind and times". Westergaard writes that Saxo combines the history and mythology of the heroic age of Denmark, and reworks it into his own story that exemplifies the past of the Danes. The history is composed of sixteen books, and extends from

1488-446: The idea that he was educated outside Denmark. Some suggest the title "Grammaticus" refers not to his education but rather his elaborate Latin style. We know from his writing that he was in the retinue and received the patronage of Absalon, Archbishop of Lund, who was the foremost adviser to King Valdemar I. In his will Absalon forgives his clerk Saxo a small debt of two and a half marks of silver and tells him to return two borrowed books to

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1536-436: The land around the city of Havn (English: "Harbour"), and built there a castle for coastal defense against the Wends. Havn quickly expanded into one of Scandinavia 's most important centers of trade, and eventually evolved into modern-day Copenhagen . It was also Absalon who held the first Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. He was interested in history and culture, and commissioned Saxo Grammaticus to write Gesta Danorum ,

1584-420: The last of the historical books being based on Absalon 's memories. "Therefore, we prefer to support the composition order of Gesta Danorum as X–XVI, followed by I–IX, and ending with the preface", says historian André Muceniecks. Chronica Jutensis Chronica Jutensis ( Danish : Jyske Krønike English : Jutland Chronicle ) also known as Continuatio compendii Saxonis or Chronica Danorum ,

1632-404: The later king Valdemar II . He instead confined himself to the administration of the Danish empire. In 1192, Absalon made his nephew Peder Sunesen  [ da ] his successor as Bishop of Roskilde, while his other nephew Anders Sunesen was named the chancellor of Canute VI. Absalon died at Sorø Abbey on 21 March 1201, 73 years old, with his last will granting his personal holdings to

1680-500: The model of Virgil's Aeneid . Saxo also may have owed much to Plato and Cicero , as well as to more contemporary writers like Geoffrey of Monmouth . Saxo's history of the Danes was compiled from sources that are of questionable historical value but were to him the only ones extant. He drew on oral tales of the Icelanders, ancient volumes, letters carved on rocks and stone, and the statements of his patron Absalon concerning

1728-524: The monastery of Sorø . The legacy of Saxo Grammaticus is the sixteen-book heroic history of the Danes called Gesta Danorum . In the preface to the work, Saxo writes that his patron Absalon ( c.  1128 – 21 March 1201), Archbishop of Lund, had encouraged him to write a heroic history of the Danes . The history is thought to have been started about 1185, after Sven Aggesen wrote his history. The goal of Gesta Danorum was, as Saxo writes, "to glorify our fatherland", which he accomplishes on

1776-417: The patronage of Anders Sunesen , who replaced Absalon as Archbishop of Lund. Saxo included in the preface warm appreciation of both Archbishops and of the reigning King Valdemar II. Of particular interest for Shakespeare scholars is the story of Amleth , the first instance of the playwright's Hamlet . Saxo based the story on an oral tale of a son taking revenge for his murdered father. Christiern Pedersen,

1824-539: The pre- Christian history and legends. Saxo's portrayals of history have been seen to differ greatly from those of his contemporaries, especially Norwegian and Icelandic , including portrayals of various historical characters as either heroes or villains. There are also differences between Saxo's work and that of the fellow Danish historian Sven Aggesen from the same era. These differences have to do with Saxo's elaboration and euhemerism in his descriptions of mainly Scandinavian history and mythology, Saxo's account on

1872-590: The relation between the Church and the public. He combined the ideals of Gregorian Reform with loyal support of a strong monarchical power. Absalon was born into the powerful Hvide clan, and owned great land possessions. He endowed several church institutions, most prominently his family's Sorø Abbey . He was granted lands by the crown, and built the first fortification of the city that evolved into modern-day Copenhagen . His titles were passed on to his nephews Anders Sunesen and Peder Sunesen . He died in 1201, and

1920-519: The support of Absalon. Absalon built churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the Cistercians and Augustinians , founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment. In 1162, Absalon transformed the Sorø Abbey of his family from Benedictine to Cistercian, granting it lands from his personal holdings. In 1167, Absalon was granted

1968-468: The tale of Thyri, for instance, is considered to be far more fantastic than the same tale presented by Sven . Saxo's work has been criticized for this reason. Kurt Johannesson's studies expanded greatly on the comprehension of Gesta Danorum , deviating from the approach that focuses mostly on mythology, and allowing the development of a wider understanding of Saxo's works. Recently some scholars, such as Sigurd Kværndrup, inspired by Johannesson's study of

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2016-494: The throne, and end with the beginning of King Valdemar Atterdag 's reign, about 1342. It was written somewhere around 1342–1350. Since the book does not mention Estonia being sold to the Livonian Order , which happened on 29 September 1346, it must have been written before this date or only shortly after. It would probably not be common knowledge for a few years, so it may have been written after 1346. The author

2064-497: The time of the founders of the Danish people, Dan I of Denmark and Angul, into about the year 1187. The first four books are concerned with the history of the Danes before Christ , the next four books with their history after Christ, and books 9–12 with Christian Denmark, and books 13–16 promote Lund and exploits before and during Saxo's own lifetime. It is assumed that the last eight books were written first, as Saxo drew heavily on

2112-413: The work of Absalon (who died in 1201, before the work was completed) for evidence of the age of Saint Canute and Valdemar I. The first eight volumes share a likeness with the works of Saxo's contemporary Snorri Sturluson . They deal with mythical elements such as giants and the Scandinavian pantheon of gods. Saxo tells of Dan the first king of Denmark, who had a brother named Angul who gave his name to

2160-429: Was educated. Some have considered his Latin to have more in common with legal than with ecclesiastical training, and his poetry is thought to have traces of parallelism . Although Saxo is commonly viewed by modern Danes as their "first national historian", two other coherent accounts of Danish history by Danish authors predate Gesta Danorum . They are Chronicon Roskildense ( English : Roskilde Chronicle ),

2208-451: Was interred at Sorø Abbey. Absalon was born around 1128 near Sorø , Zealand . Due to his name being unusual in Denmark, it is speculated that he was baptized on the Danish "Absalon" name day , 30 October. He was the son of Asser Rig , a magnate of the Hvide clan from Fjenneslev on Zealand , and Inger Eriksdotter . He was also a kinsman of Archbishop Eskil of Lund . He grew up at

2256-517: Was the chief policymaker in Danish politics. Absalon kept his hostile attitude to the Holy Roman Empire. On the accession of Canute VI in 1182, an imperial ambassador arrived at Roskilde to get the new king to swear fealty to Frederick Barbarossa, but Absalon resolutely withstood him. When Absalon retired from military service in 1184 at the age of fifty-seven, he resigned the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar,

2304-429: Was the first writer produced by Denmark. Saxo's skill as a Latinist was praised by Erasmus , who wondered how "a Dane of that age got so great power of eloquence". Later R. W. Chambers would call Saxo's writings "difficult and bombastic, but always amusing Latin". There have been many attempts to understand the type of Latin language used by Saxo, and to juxtapose it in history, to provide more information on where he

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