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64-511: Sakoku ( 鎖国 / 鎖國 , "chained country") is the most common name for the isolationist foreign policy of the Japanese Tokugawa shogunate under which, during the Edo period (from 1603 to 1868), relations and trade between Japan and other countries were severely limited, and almost all foreign nationals were banned from entering Japan, while common Japanese people were kept from leaving

128-793: A hermit kingdom , was forced out of isolationism by Japan in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 , making use of gunboat diplomacy which had been used by the United States to force Japan to open up. Paraguay under the rule of Dictator José Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia in 1814-1840 also had a similar isolationist policy. This ended, although gradually, during the governments of Carlos Antonio López and Francisco Solano López . Isolationism This contrasts with philosophies such as colonialism , expansionism , and liberal internationalism . Isolationism has been defined as: A policy or doctrine of trying to isolate one's country from

192-519: A historically tense relationship . From 1431 to 1863, the Kingdom of Cambodia enforced an isolationist policy. The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. When Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge came to power on 17 April 1975 and established Democratic Kampuchea , the urban population of every city, including Phnom Penh , was relocated to the countryside. This was ordered by

256-470: A $ 200 per day fee on top of other travel expenses such as meals and accommodation. Prior to 2022, visitors were not allowed to travel independently and had to be accompanied by a tour guide . As of 2021, Bhutan does not maintain formal foreign relations with any of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council , notably including China , its neighbor to the north with which it has

320-598: A Christian priest shall have a reward of 400 to 500 sheets of silver and for every Christian in proportion. All Namban (Portuguese and Spanish) who propagate the doctrine of the Catholics, or bear this scandalous name, shall be imprisoned in the Onra , or common jail of the town. The whole race of the Portuguese with their mothers, nurses and whatever belongs to them, shall be banished to Macao. Whoever presumes to bring

384-470: A letter from abroad, or to return after he hath been banished, shall die with his family; also whoever presumes to intercede for him, shall be put to death. No nobleman nor any soldier shall be suffered to purchase anything from the foreigner. It is conventionally regarded that the shogunate imposed and enforced the sakoku policy in order to remove the colonial and religious influence of primarily Spain and Portugal , which were perceived as posing

448-587: A policy made explicit in the Monroe Doctrine's emphasis on unilateral action. Not until 1863 did an American delegate attend an international conference. Isolationism has been criticized for the lack of aiding nations with major troubles. One notable example is that of American isolationism, which Benjamin Schwartz described as a "tragedy" inspired by Puritanism . Some modern American conservative commentators assert that labeling others as isolationist

512-584: A sign of the West's desire to incorporate Japan into the imperialism that had been taking hold of the continent. Among other measures, they gave the Western nations unequivocal control of tariffs on imports and the right of extraterritoriality to all their visiting nationals. They would remain a sticking point in Japan's relations with the West up to the turn of the 20th century. Several missions were sent abroad by

576-632: A strategy of isolationism. Robert Art makes his argument in A Grand Strategy for America (2003). Books that have made the argument that the United States followed unilaterism instead of isolationism include Walter A. McDougall 's Promised Land, Crusader State (1997), John Lewis Gaddis 's Surprise, Security, and the American Experience (2004), and Bradley F. Podliska 's Acting Alone (2010). Both sides claim policy prescriptions from George Washington's Farewell Address as evidence for their argument. Bear F. Braumoeller argues that even

640-548: A subordinate status within the Chinese tributary system . Japan's generally constructive official diplomatic relationship with Joseon Korea allowed regular embassies ( Tongsinsa ) to be dispatched by Korea to Japan. Together with the brisk trade between Tsushima and Korea, as well as the presence of Japanese in the Busan wakan , Japan was able to access Chinese cultural, intellectual and technological developments throughout

704-399: A threat to the stability of the shogunate and to peace in the archipelago . The increasing number of Catholic converts in southern Japan (mainly Kyūshū ) was a significant element of that which was seen as a threat. Based on work conducted by Japanese historians in the 1970s, some scholars have challenged this view, believing it to be only a partial explanation of political reality. Before

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768-524: Is a common perception. Nevertheless, Christianity and the two colonial powers it was most strongly associated with were seen as genuine threats by the Tokugawa bakufu . Once the remnants of the Toyotomi clan had been defeated in 1615, Tokugawa Hidetada turned his attention to the sole remaining credible challenge to Tokugawa supremacy. Religious challenges to central authority were taken seriously by

832-760: Is divided into two regimes with the People's Republic of China solidified control on mainland China while the existing Republic of China was confined to the island of Taiwan as both governments lay claim to each other's sovereignty. While the PRC is recognized by the United Nations , European Union , and the majority of the world's states, the ROC remains diplomatically isolated although 15 states recognize it as "China" with some countries maintaining unofficial diplomatic relations through trade offices . From 1641 to 1853,

896-465: Is used against individuals in a pejorative manner. Archipelago An archipelago ( / ˌ ɑːr k ə ˈ p ɛ l ə ɡ oʊ / AR -kə- PEL -ə-goh ), sometimes called an island group or island chain , is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands , or sometimes a sea containing a small number of scattered islands. Archipelagos are sometimes defined by political boundaries. For example, while they are geopolitically divided,

960-554: The bakufu as ecclesiastical challenges by armed Buddhist monks were common during the sengoku period. The Empress Meishō (r. 1629–43) also had grave doubts when she heard about how the Spanish and Portuguese were invading and colonising in the New World , and thought that Japan would soon become one of the many countries in their possession. Protestant English and Dutch traders reinforced this perception by accusing

1024-462: The Aegean Islands (since the sea has a large number of islands). Archipelagos may be found isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland, which form an archipelago. Archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots , but may also be

1088-786: The Ainu people was limited to the Matsumae Domain in Hokkaidō , and trade with the Ryūkyū Kingdom took place in Satsuma Domain (present-day Kagoshima Prefecture ). Apart from these direct commercial contacts in peripheral provinces, trading countries sent regular missions to the shōgun in Edo and at Osaka Castle . The policy ended after 1853 when the Perry Expedition commanded by Matthew C. Perry forced

1152-493: The Catholic Church and in order to try to keep foreigners at bay, he turned church courtyards into artillery parks and turned confession boxes into border sentry posts. Some scholars, such as Robert J. Art , believe that the United States had an isolationist history, but most other scholars dispute that claim by describing the United States as following a strategy of unilateralism or non-interventionism rather than

1216-642: The Communist Party of Kampuchea and the secret police Santebal , and they then established an infamous prison gulag inside the torture chamber called Tuol Sleng (S-21) . Cambodia proceeded to implement the Year Zero policy, hastening isolation from the rest of the world. Ultimately, the authority of the Khmer Rouge and its isolationist policy would collapse in 1978 when the Vietnamese invaded

1280-566: The Convention of Kanagawa in response to demands made by Commodore Perry in 1854. Trade prospered during the sakoku period, and though relations and trade were restricted to certain ports, the country was far from closed. Even as the shogunate expelled the Portuguese, they simultaneously engaged in discussions with Dutch and Korean representatives to ensure that the overall volume of trade did not suffer. Thus, it has become increasingly common in scholarship in recent decades to refer to

1344-603: The Edo period . At the time of the promulgation of the strictest versions of the maritime prohibitions, the Ming dynasty had lost control of much of China and it was unnecessary, and perhaps undesirable, for Japan to pursue official diplomatic relations with either of the Ming or the Qing governments while the issue of imperial legitimacy was unsettled. Japan was able to acquire the imported goods it required through intermediary trade with

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1408-646: The Internet in order to preserve its culture, environment, and identity. Eventually, Jigme Singye Wangchuck lifted the ban on television and the Internet. His son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck , was elected Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan, which helped forge the Bhutanese democracy . Bhutan has subsequently undergone a transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy multi-party democracy . The development of Bhutanese democracy has been marked by

1472-453: The North , which would continued by his son and grandson following his death in 1994. In 1814, three years after it gained its independence on May 14, 1811, Paraguay was taken over by the dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia . During his rule which lasted from 1814 until his death in 1840, he closed Paraguay's borders and prohibited trade or any relationship between Paraguay and

1536-605: The Ryūkyū Islands and Korea, the clans in charge of trade built trading towns outside Japanese territory where commerce actually took place. Due to the necessity for Japanese subjects to travel to and from these trading posts, this resembled something of an outgoing trade, with Japanese subjects making regular contact with foreign traders in essentially extraterritorial land. Commerce with Chinese and Dutch traders in Nagasaki took place on an island called Dejima , separated from

1600-768: The Ryūkyū Kingdom ), where the Dutch East India Company was also permitted to operate. The Matsumae clan domain in Hokkaidō (then called Ezo ) traded with the Ainu people . Through the Sō clan daimyō of Tsushima, there were relations with Joseon -dynasty Korea. Ryūkyū, a semi-independent kingdom for nearly all of the Edo period, was controlled by the Shimazu clan daimyō of Satsuma Domain . Tashiro Kazui has shown that trade between Japan and these entities

1664-661: The San Juan Islands and Gulf Islands geologically form part of a larger Gulf Archipelago. The word archipelago is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄρχι-( arkhi- , "chief") and πέλαγος ( pélagos , "sea") through the Italian arcipelago . In antiquity , "Archipelago" (from Medieval Greek * ἀρχιπέλαγος and Latin archipelagus ) was the proper name for the Aegean Sea . Later, usage shifted to refer to

1728-633: The Spanish and Portuguese missionaries of spreading the religion systematically, as part of a claimed policy of culturally dominating and colonizing Asian countries. The Dutch and English were generally seen by the Japanese to be able to separate religion and trade, while their Iberian counterparts were looked upon with much suspicion. The Dutch, eager to take over trade from the Spanish and Portuguese, had no problems reinforcing this view. The number of Christians in Japan had been steadily rising due to

1792-606: The Tokugawa shogunate of Japan enforced a policy called kaikin . The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. The commonly held idea that Japan was entirely closed, however, is misleading. In fact, Japan maintained limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with China , Korea , and the Ryukyu Islands , as well as the Dutch Republic as the only Western trading partner of Japan for much of

1856-459: The bakufu , in order to learn about Western civilization, revise treaties, and delay the opening of cities and harbours to foreign trade. A Japanese Embassy to the United States was sent in 1860, on board the Kanrin Maru . In the 1861 Tsushima Incident , a Russian fleet tried to force open a harbour not officially opened to foreign trade with foreign countries, but it was repelled with

1920-435: The opening of Japan to American (and by extension, Western) trade through a series of treaties , called the Convention of Kanagawa . No Japanese ship ... nor any native of Japan, shall presume to go out of the country; whoever acts contrary to this, shall die, and the ship with the crew and goods aboard shall be sequestered until further orders. All persons who return from abroad shall be put to death. Whoever discovers

1984-481: The 18th century, but they came to nothing. Later on, the sakoku policy was the main safeguard against the total depletion of Japanese mineral resources—such as silver and copper—to the outside world. However, while silver exportation through Nagasaki was controlled by the shogunate to the point of stopping all exportation, the exportation of silver through Korea continued in relatively high quantities. The way Japan kept abreast of Western technology during this period

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2048-609: The Bay of Edo ( Tokyo ) and displayed the threatening power of his ships' Paixhans guns . He demanded that Japan open to trade with the United States. These ships became known as the kurofune , the Black Ships . The following year, at the Convention of Kanagawa (March 31, 1854), Perry returned with eight ships and forced the Shogun to sign the " Treaty of Peace and Amity ", establishing formal diplomatic relations between Japan and

2112-691: The Dutch and through the Ryukyu Islands . The Japanese actually encouraged the Ryūkyū Kingdom 's rulers to maintain a tributary relationship with China, even though the Shimazu clan had surreptitiously established great political influence in the Ryukyu Islands. The Qing became much more open to trade after it had defeated the Ming loyalists in Taiwan, and thus Japan's rulers felt even less need to establish official relations with China. Liberalizing challenges to sakoku came from within Japan's elite in

2176-609: The French revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic wars, encouraged another perspective. A desire for separateness and unilateral freedom of action merged with national pride and a sense of continental safety to foster the policy of isolation. Although the United States maintained diplomatic relations and economic contacts abroad, it sought to restrict these as narrowly as possible in order to retain its independence. The Department of State continually rejected proposals for joint cooperation,

2240-576: The Ming implementing Haijin from 1371. Unlike sakoku , foreign influences outside East Asia were banned by the Chinese and Koreans as well, while Rangaku allowed Western ideas other than Christianity to be studied in Japan. China was forced to open up in the Treaty of Nanking and in subsequent treaties, following its defeat in the First Opium War . Joseon, which had developed a reputation as

2304-542: The Tokugawa bakufu 's domestic agenda. One element of this agenda was to acquire sufficient control over Japan's foreign policy so as to not only guarantee social peace, but also to maintain Tokugawa supremacy over the other powerful lords in the country, particularly the tozama daimyō . These daimyō had used East Asian trading linkages to profitable effect during the Sengoku period , which allowed them to build up their military strength as well. By restricting

2368-517: The Tokugawa, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had previously begun to turn against the European missionaries after the Spanish conquest of the Philippines began, and the gradual progress of the Spanish there led to increasing hostility from the Tokugawa as well. The motivations for the gradual strengthening of the maritime prohibitions during the early 17th century should be considered within the context of

2432-656: The United States. The United Kingdom signed the Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty at the end of 1854. Between 1852 and 1855, Admiral Yevfimiy Putyatin of the Russian Navy made several attempts to obtain from the Shogun favourable trade terms for Russia. In June 1853, he brought to Nagasaki Bay a letter from the Foreign Minister Karl Nesselrode and demonstrated to Tanaka Hisashige a steam engine, probably

2496-514: The ability of the daimyō to trade with foreign ships coming to Japan or pursue trade opportunities overseas, the Tokugawa bakufu could ensure none would become powerful enough to challenge the bakufu 's supremacy. This is consistent with the generally agreed rationale for the Tokugawa bakufu 's implementation of the system of alternate attendance, or sankin-kōtai . Directing trade predominantly through Nagasaki , which came under Toyotomi Hideyoshi 's control in 1587, would enable

2560-473: The active encouragement and participation of the reigning Bhutanese monarchs since the 1950s, beginning with legal reforms, and culminating in the enactment of Bhutan's Constitution . Tourism in Bhutan was prohibited until 1974. Since then, the country has allowed foreigners to visit, but has tightly controlled tourism in an effort to preserve its natural and cultural heritage. As of 2022, tourists must pay

2624-452: The affairs of other nations by declining to enter into alliances, foreign economic commitments, international agreements, and generally attempting to make one's economy entirely self-reliant; seeking to devote the entire efforts of one's country to its own advancement, both diplomatically and economically, while remaining in a state of peace by avoiding foreign entanglements and responsibilities. Before 1999, Bhutan had banned television and

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2688-485: The bakufu, through taxes and levies, to bolster its own treasury. This was no small matter, as lack of wealth had limited both the preceding Kamakura bakufu and the Muromachi bakufu in crucial ways. The focus on the removal of Western and Christian influence from the Japanese archipelago as the main driver of the kaikin could be argued to be a somewhat eurocentric reading of Japanese history, although it

2752-463: The best case for isolationism, the United States in the interwar period, has been widely misunderstood and that Americans proved willing to fight as soon as they believed a genuine threat existed. Warren F. Kuehl and Gary B. Ostrower argue: Events during and after the Revolution related to the treaty of alliance with France, as well as difficulties arising over the neutrality policy pursued during

2816-413: The city by a narrow strait; foreigners could not enter Nagasaki from Dejima, nor could Japanese civilians enter Dejima without special permission or authorization. For the island's inhabitants, conditions on Dejima were humiliating; the police of Nagasaki could harass them at will, and at all times a strong Japanese guard was stationed on the narrow bridge to the mainland in order to prevent them from leaving

2880-614: The coastlines of China, Japan, and Korea, and were one of the key primary concerns, although the maritime ban was not without some control. In the winter of 1757, the Qianlong Emperor declared that—effective the next year— Guangzhou was to be the only Chinese port permitted to foreign traders, beginning the Canton System . Since the division of the territory following the Chinese Civil War in 1949, China

2944-556: The country and then overthrew Pol Pot on 7 January 1979. After Zheng He's voyages in the 15th century, the foreign policy of the Ming dynasty in China became increasingly isolationist. The Hongwu Emperor was not the first to propose the policy to ban all maritime shipping in 1390. The Qing dynasty that came after the Ming dynasty often continued the Ming dynasty's isolationist policies. Wokou , which literally translates to "Japanese pirates" or "dwarf pirates", were pirates who raided

3008-507: The country. The policy was enacted by the shogunate government ( bakufu ) under Tokugawa Iemitsu through a number of edicts and policies from 1633 to 1639. The term sakoku originates from the manuscript work Sakoku-ron ( 鎖國論 ) written by Japanese astronomer and translator Shizuki Tadao in 1801. Shizuki invented the word while translating the works of the 17th-century German traveller Engelbert Kaempfer namely, his book, 'the history of Japan', posthumously released in 1727. Japan

3072-641: The efforts of missionaries, such as Francis Xavier and daimyō converts. The direct trigger which is said to have spurred the imposition of sakoku was the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637–38, an uprising of 40,000 mostly Christian peasants. In the aftermath, the shogunate accused missionaries of instigating the rebellion, expelled them from the country, and strictly banned the religion on penalty of death. The remaining Japanese Christians, mostly in Nagasaki, formed underground communities and came to be called Kakure Kirishitan . All contact with

3136-473: The first ever seen in Japan. His efforts culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Shimoda in February 1855. Within five years, Japan had signed similar treaties with other western countries. The Harris Treaty was signed with the United States on July 29, 1858. These " Ansei Treaties " were widely regarded by Japanese intellectuals as unequal, having been forced on Japan through gunboat diplomacy , and as

3200-445: The foreign relations policy of the period not as sakoku , implying a totally secluded, isolated , and "closed" country, but by the term kaikin ( 海禁 , "maritime prohibitions") used in documents at the time, and derived from the similar Chinese concept haijin . During the sakoku period, Japan traded with five entities, through four "gateways". The largest was the private Chinese trade at Nagasaki (who also traded with

3264-691: The help of the British. An Embassy to Europe was sent in 1862, and a Second Embassy to Europe in 1863. Japan also sent a delegation and participated to the 1867 World Fair in Paris. Other missions, distinct from those of the Shogunate, were also sent to Europe, such as the Chōshū Five , and missions by the fief of Satsuma . China under the Ming and Qing dynasties as well as Joseon had implemented isolationist policies before Japan did, starting with

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3328-466: The island. Many isolated attempts to end Japan's seclusion were made by expanding Western powers during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. American, Russian and French ships all attempted to engage in a relationship with Japan but were rejected. These largely unsuccessful attempts continued until July 8, 1853, when Commodore Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy with four warships : Mississippi , Plymouth , Saratoga , and Susquehanna steamed into

3392-514: The outside world became strictly regulated by the shogunate, or by the domains (Tsushima, Matsumae, and Satsuma) assigned to the task. Dutch traders were permitted to continue commerce in Japan only by agreeing not to engage in missionary activities. Today, the Christian percentage of the population (1%) in Japan remains far lower than in other East Asian countries such as China (3%), Vietnam (7%) and South Korea (29%). The sakoku policy

3456-497: The outside world. The Spanish settlers who had arrived in Paraguay just before it gained its independence were required to marry old colonists or the native Guaraní in order to create a single Paraguayan people . Francia had a particular dislike of foreigners, and any foreigners who attempted to enter the country were not allowed to leave for an indefinite period of time. An independent character, he hated European influences and

3520-460: The period. The culture of Japan developed with limited influence from the outside world and had one of the longest stretches of peace in history. During this period, Japan developed thriving cities, castle towns, increasing commodification of agriculture and domestic trade, wage labor, increasing literacy and concomitant print culture , laying the groundwork for modernization even as the shogunate itself grew weak. In 1863, Emperor Gojong took

3584-465: The result of erosion , deposition , and land elevation . Depending on their geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands , continental fragments , or continental islands . Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, and widely separated from any adjacent continent. The Hawaiian Islands and Galapagos Islands in the Pacific , and Mascarene Islands in

3648-670: The shelf. The islands of the Inside Passage off the coast of British Columbia and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago are examples. Artificial archipelagos have been created in various countries for different purposes. Palm Islands and The World Islands off Dubai were or are being created for leisure and tourism purposes. Marker Wadden in the Netherlands is being built as a conservation area for birds and other wildlife. The largest archipelago in

3712-432: The south Indian Ocean are examples. Continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. The Farallon Islands off the coast of California are an example. Sets of islands formed close to the coast of a continent are considered continental archipelagos when they form part of the same continental shelf, when those islands are above-water extensions of

3776-527: The throne of the Joseon Dynasty when he was a child. His father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun , ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s he was the main proponent of isolationism and the principal instrument of the persecution of both native and foreign Catholics. Following the division of the peninsula after independence from Japan at the end of World War II , Kim Il Sung inaugurated an isolationist nationalist regime in

3840-406: Was also a way of controlling commerce between Japan and other nations, as well as asserting its new place in the East Asian hierarchy. The Tokugawa had set out to create their own small-scale international system where Japan could continue to access the trade in essential commodities such as medicines, and gain access to essential intelligence about happenings in China while avoiding having to agree to

3904-528: Was by studying medical and other texts in the Dutch language obtained through Dejima. This developed into a blossoming field in the late 18th century which was known as Rangaku (Dutch studies). It became obsolete after the country was opened and the sakoku policy collapsed. Thereafter, many Japanese students (e.g., Kikuchi Dairoku ) were sent to study in foreign countries, and many foreign employees were employed in Japan (see o-yatoi gaikokujin ). The policies associated with sakoku ended with

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3968-425: Was divided into two kinds: Group A in which he places China and the Dutch, "whose relations fell under the direct jurisdiction of the Bakufu at Nagasaki" and Group B, represented by the Korean Kingdom and the Ryūkyū Kingdom, "who dealt with Tsushima (the Sō clan) and Satsuma (the Shimazu clan) domains respectively". Many items traded from Japan to Korea and the Ryūkyū Kingdom were eventually shipped to China. In

4032-415: Was not completely isolated under the sakoku policy. Sakoku was a system in which strict regulations were placed on commerce and foreign relations by the shogunate and certain feudal domains ( han ). There was extensive trade with China through the port of Nagasaki , in the far west of Japan, with a residential area for the Chinese. The policy stated that the only European influence permitted

4096-416: Was the Dutch factory at Dejima in Nagasaki. Western scientific, technical and medical innovations flowed into Japan through Rangaku ("Dutch learning"). Trade with Korea was limited to the Tsushima Domain (today part of Nagasaki Prefecture ) and the wakan in Choryang (part of present-day Busan ). There were also diplomatic exchanges done through the Joseon Tongsinsa from Korea. Trade with

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