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121-594: The Salinas River , which geologically formed the fluvial valley and generated its human history, flows to the northwest or 'up' along the principal axis and the length of the valley. The valley was named during the late 18th-century Spanish colonial Alta California period, and in Spanish Salina is the term for a salt marsh , salt lake , or salt pan . The seasonal Salinas River had brackish tule ponds in broad depressed areas, and more salinity during summer and when drought lowered flows. The valley runs in

242-625: A thermal low that draws the marine layer into the valley, with fog and low clouds near Monterey Bay, sometimes extending farther down the valley. The climate is ideal for the numerous vineyards in the Santa Lucia Highlands, promoting growth of winetasting along the River Road Wine Trail . The California Rodeo Salinas , California International Airshow, the National Steinbeck Center , and

363-665: A 1963 debate over extension, the House of Representatives rejected an extension of the program. However, the Senate approved an extension that required U.S. workers to receive the same non-wage benefits as braceros. The House responded with a final one-year extension of the program without the non-wage benefits, and the Bracero Program saw its demise in 1964. 1942-1947 Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program 1948-1964 Farm Labor Supply Program The workers who participated in

484-550: A Congressional committee against the program, citing lack of enforcement of pay standards by the Labor Department. The Department of Labor eventually acted upon these criticisms and began closing numerous bracero camps in 1957–1958, they also imposed new minimum wage standards and in 1959 they demanded that American workers recruited through the Employment Service be entitled to the same wages and benefits as

605-435: A Mexican banking system. In addition to the money transfers being missing or inaccessible by many braceros, the everyday battles of wage payments existed up and down the railroads, as well as in all the country's farms. In a newspaper article titled "U.S. Investigates Bracero Program", published by The New York Times on January 21, 1963, claims the U.S. Department of Labor was checking false-record keeping. In this short article

726-708: A bus carrying Mexican migrant workers collided with a train in September 1963, killing 32 passengers and injuring 25. It was the most serious road accident in U.S. history, and helped spur abolition of the bracero program . Agriculture dominates the economy of the valley. Promoters call the Salinas Valley "the Salad Bowl of the World" for the production of lettuce, broccoli, peppers and numerous other crops. The climate and long growing season are also ideal for

847-544: A deciding factor for if men answered to the bracero program and took part in it. Women and families left behind were also often seen as threats by the US government because of the possible motives for the full migration of the entire family. Bracero men's prospective in-laws were often wary of men who had a history of abandoning wives and girlfriends in Mexico and not coming back from the U.S. or not reaching out when they were back in

968-438: A different river, and that it should therefore be given a new name, however he appears to have been over-ruled by the other members of his party at the time. The first agreed upon name for the river, as it subsequently appeared on many Spanish and Mexican maps, was Rio de Monterey , presumably being named after the newly founded nearby town of Monterey , the capital of Alta California . The earliest recorded use of this name for

1089-407: A growing preference for operating outside of the parameters set by the program. Moreover, Truman's Commission on Migratory Labor in 1951 disclosed that the presence of Mexican workers depressed the income of American farmers, even as the U.S. Department of State urged a new bracero program to counter the popularity of communism in Mexico. Furthermore, it was seen as a way for Mexico to be involved in

1210-478: A mile in width. During the 20th century, such flood conditions are reported to have generally occurred approximately once every 3–10 years. The last similar flooding event along the river was reported in 1998. The atypical drought-breaking rains of the winter of 2016–2017 restored the river's flow to its lower northern reaches in January ;2017. The current most typical dry or zero flow state of

1331-513: A new bracero program, Mexico sought to have the United States impose sanctions on American employers of undocumented workers. President Truman signed Public Law 78 (which did not include employer sanctions) in July 1951. Soon after it was signed, United States negotiators met with Mexican officials to prepare a new bilateral agreement. This agreement made it so that the U.S. government were

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1452-488: A pressing harvest period. The notable strikes throughout the Northwest proved that employers would rather negotiate with braceros than to deport them, employers had little time to waste as their crops needed to be harvested and the difficulty and expense associated with the bracero program forced them to negotiate with braceros for fair wages and better living conditions. Braceros were also discriminated and segregated in

1573-690: A southeast to northwest alignment. It begins south of San Ardo , framed by the central inner California Coast Ranges , continues northwestward continuously defined on the west by the Santa Lucia Range , on the east by the Gabilan Range , to its end and the river's mouth at the Monterey Bay . It is also known for being the setting of the novels East of Eden and Of Mice and Men , both by John Steinbeck . The Salinas Valley runs approximately 90 miles (145 km) southeast from

1694-620: A temporary measure during the early phases of World War II . The agreement was extended with the Migrant Labor Agreement of 1951 ( Pub. L.   82–78 ), enacted as an amendment to the Agricultural Act of 1949 by the United States Congress , which set the official parameters for the Bracero Program until its termination in 1964. In studies published in 2018 and 2023, it was found that

1815-459: Is a wildlife corridor , and provides the principal source of water from its reservoirs and tributaries for the farms and vineyards of the valley. In 1769, when the river was first discovered by non-Native peoples via the Portola expedition , it was reported by them as being a "river watering a luxuriant plain" filled with fish weighing 8 to 10 pounds (3.6 to 4.5 kg). As of the end of 2016,

1936-479: Is blocked by sand dunes except during winter high-water flows. The land owners altered the course of the river by filling in the river bed during the dry season. This allowed them to farm all of their land and use the water as they saw fit. The old stream bed went from the Old Salinas River, joining Elkhorn Slough on Monterey Bay near Moss Landing , to the present course where the main channel's mouth

2057-640: Is directly on the Pacific Ocean . The old Salinas River channel that diverts north behind the sand dunes along the ocean, acts as an overflow channel during the rainy season. Commencing from Hill Town running south along the western banks of the Salinas River to Gonzales is River Road. This road also falls along the edge of the Santa Lucia Highlands AVA , giving rise to its designation as River Road Wine Trail . Before

2178-529: Is especially known as one of the principal regions for lettuce and artichokes in the United States. The river is shallow above ground, periodically dry, with much of its flow underground. The underground flow results from numerous aquifers, which are recharged by water from the Salinas, especially from the Nacimiento and San Antonio lakes during the dry months. In the 18th and early 19th centuries,

2299-417: Is in contrast to some areas of the country where various water authorities both monitor and regulate water use for agriculture. The previous ecosystem of the Salinas River, which once included steelhead trout, and numerous other species throughout the full length of a once year-round flowing river, has clearly been drastically impacted in recent years by the expanding heavy demands of agricultural water use in

2420-517: Is located in between the Gabilan and Santa Lucia mountain ranges, which border the Salinas Valley to the east and the west, respectively. Before colonization, the valley was inhabited by indigenous Salinans who lived by hunting and gathering and spoke the Salinan language . The Salinan people are believed to have lived south of Junipero Serra Peak , perhaps ranging from Slates Hot Springs on

2541-494: Is served earlier than warranted, 4.) bag lunches are universally disliked ... In some camps, efforts have been made to vary the diet more in accord with Mexican taste. The cold sandwich lunch with a piece of fruit, however, persists almost everywhere as the principal cause of discontent." Not only was the pay extremely low, but braceros often weren't paid on a timely basis. A letter from Howard A. Preston describes payroll issues that many braceros faced, "The difficulty lay chiefly in

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2662-489: Is to reduce pumping of groundwater and slow down seawater intrusion. The Salinas Valley's weather varies from north to south. Proximity to Monterey Bay and the cool coastal waters of the Pacific cools the northern part of the valley in summer, and keeps it relatively mild in winter. The southern portion of the valley has greater extremes of temperature, hotter in summer, and colder in winter. In summer, inland heating creates

2783-652: The Las Tablas Creek tributary of the Nacimiento River, and Jack Creek, a tributary of Paso Robles Creek west of Templeton . In regards to the area's historical beaver population, after a period of depletion by 19th-century fur trappers, California golden beaver ( Castor canadensis subauratus ) populations rebounded and expanded their range from the Salinas River mouth to the San Antonio River tributary below its reservoir and beyond to

2904-565: The Monterey AVA . Although agriculture forms an economic base, more than 100 manufacturing firms call Salinas home. Some of the largest employers in the area include: Dole Fresh Vegetable , the County of Monterey , and Salinas Valley Memorial Hospital . Supplying Salinas Valley farms is an underground water supply fed, in part, by the large watershed in surrounding mountains. Two reservoirs – Nacimiento and San Antonio —store and release

3025-491: The Rio Salinas , most probably so renamed after the nearby American-founded town of Salinas , which in turn appears to have first been named in 1854 after the old Rancho Las Salinas land grant, parts of which included the city. The river begins in southern San Luis Obispo County , approximately 2.5 miles (4.0 km) east of the summit point of Pine Ridge, at a point just off of Agua Escondido Road, coming down off of

3146-662: The Salinas Valley that slices through the central California Coast Ranges south of Monterey Bay . The river begins in southern San Luis Obispo County , originating in the Los Machos Hills of the Los Padres National Forest . From there, the river flows north into Monterey County , eventually making its way to connect with the Monterey Bay , part of the Pacific Ocean , approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) south of Moss Landing . The river

3267-634: The Sea of Cortez in western Mexico . The Salinas River is also thought to have been, about 700,000 years ago, the outlet for prehistoric Lake Corcoran . Lake Corcoran once filled much of what is now California's Central Valley , prior to the lake's developing an outlet via the Carquinez Strait , to empty through the present San Francisco Bay . People first appeared along the California coast approximately 13,000 years ago, during

3388-554: The U.S. House immigration and nationality legislation on June 25, 1952. The H.R. 5678 bill conceded a federal felony for knowingly concealing, harboring, or shielding a foreign national or illegal immigrant . However the Texas Proviso stated that employing unauthorized workers would not constitute as "harboring or concealing" them. This also led to the establishment of the H-2A visa program, which enabled laborers to enter

3509-594: The de Anza Expedition in March ;1776: ... there are obtained also many good salmon which enter the river to spawn. Since they are fond of fresh water they ascend the streams so far that I am assured that even at the mission of San Antonio some of the fish which ascend the Rio de Monterey have been caught. Of this fish we ate almost every day while we were here. If Father Font was describing salmon (and not steelhead), then his records suggest that salmon once traversed

3630-437: The 7 July 1846 invasion by American warships, commanded by Admiral J.D. Sloat . When Americans first arrived, the river approached Monterey Bay near Mulligan Hill just north of Marina . It turned north to flow parallel to the bay, separated by sand dunes, before flowing into Elkhorn Slough and finally entering the bay north of Moss Landing . Possibly because of flooding and human activity sometime between 1908 and 1910,

3751-489: The Aleutian Islands before returning to the spawning grounds in the tributaries of the Salinas River. As noted, the trout life-cycle which requires an annual migration to the sea and then back, was broken during the dry-river conditions of the years 2013–2016, and the current fate of the river's steelhead trout remains uncertain at best. Father Pedro Font described salmon in the Salinas River ( Rio de Monterey ) on

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3872-634: The Allied armed forces. The first braceros were admitted on September 27, 1942, for the sugar-beet harvest season. From 1948 to 1964, the U.S. allowed in on average 200,000 braceros per year. Bracero railroad workers were often distinguished from their agricultural counterparts. Railroad workers closely resembled agriculture contract workers between Mexico and the U.S. Being a bracero on the railroad meant lots of demanding manual labor, including tasks such as expanding rail yards, laying track at port facilities, and replacing worn rails. Railroad work contracts helped

3993-414: The Bracero Program did not have an adverse effect on the wages or employment for American-born farm workers, and that termination of the program had adverse impact on American-born farmers and resulted in increased farm mechanization. Since abolition of the Bracero Program, temporary agricultural workers have been admitted with H-2 and H-2A visas . The Bracero Program operated as a joint program under

4114-657: The June 1946 strike of 1000 plus braceros that refused to harvest lettuce and peas in Idaho. The 1943 strike in Dayton, Washington , is unique in the unity it showed between Mexican braceros and Japanese-American workers. The wartime labor shortage not only led to tens of thousands of Mexican braceros being used on Northwest farms, it also saw the U.S. government allow some ten thousand Japanese Americans, who were placed against their will in internment camps during World War II, to leave

4235-511: The Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with Mexico . For these farmworkers , the agreement guaranteed decent living conditions ( sanitation , adequate shelter, and food ) and a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour, as well as protections from forced military service, and guaranteed that a part of wages was to be put into a private savings account in Mexico. The program also allowed the importation of contract laborers from Guam as

4356-522: The Mexican consulates did for braceros in the Southwest. Combine all these reasons together and it created a climate where braceros in the Northwest felt they had no other choice, but to strike in order for their voices to be heard. Braceros met the challenges of discrimination and exploitation by finding various ways in which they could resist and attempt to improve their living conditions and wages in

4477-408: The Mexican government intervened. Lack of food, poor living conditions, discrimination, and exploitation led braceros to become active in strikes and to successfully negotiate their terms. == Role of women and impact on families == The role of women in the bracero movement was often that of the homemaker, the dutiful wife who patiently waited for their men; cultural aspects also demonstrate women as

4598-519: The National Guard. Another difference is the proximity, or not, to the Mexican border. In the Southwest, employers could easily threaten braceros with deportation knowing the ease with which new braceros could replace them. However, in the Northwest due to the much farther distance and cost associated with travel made threats of deportation harder to follow through with. Braceros in the Northwest could not easily skip out on their contracts due to

4719-488: The Northwest extremely difficult. The farmers set up powerful collective bodies like the Associated Farmers Incorporated of Washington with a united goal of keeping pay down and any union agitators or communists out of the fields. The Associated Farmers used various types of law enforcement officials to keep "order" including privatized law enforcement officers, the state highway patrol, and even

4840-523: The Pacific Northwest work camps. Over two dozen strikes were held in the first two years of the program. One common method used to increase their wages was by "loading sacks" which consisted of braceros loading their harvest bags with rock in order to make their harvest heavier and therefore be paid more for the sack. Also, braceros learned that timing was everything. Strikes were more successful when combined with work stoppages, cold weather, and

4961-414: The Salinas River main stem and up its San Antonio River tributary to Mission San Antonio near what is now Jolon . This may support other historical observer records primarily in the form of oral histories taken and compiled by H.A. Franklin that placed Chinook salmon in the mainstem as far south as Atascadero where Highway 41 crosses, as well as southern tributaries of the Salinas River, including

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5082-477: The Salinas River mouth near Castroville and Salinas towards King City and San Ardo . The valley lends its name to the geologic province in which it is located, the Salinian Block . Cities and populated places in the Salinas Valley include Bradley , Castroville , Chualar , Gonzales , Greenfield , Jolon , King City , Salinas , San Ardo , San Lucas , Soledad and Spreckels . The Salinas Valley

5203-565: The Salinas River that supported steelhead trout once included Paso Robles Creek, Jack Creek, Atascadero Creek, Santa Margarita Creek and Trout Creek in the upper reaches of the River. It once took over ten days for the steelhead from the upper part of the watershed to migrate to the Pacific Ocean near the City of Marina on Monterey Bay. From there, the steelhead would migrate to the area west of

5324-416: The Salinas River watershed. At one time it was also an important middle link for salmon migrating from the Salinas River to Tassajara Creek and other tributaries. Estrella River also remains undammed. A 2015 assessment of the survivability of the river's steelhead trout indicated that such a survival may be unlikely, due to the river's recent tendency to run dry for most of the year. Other tributaries of

5445-483: The Salinas River. The long and deep submarine Monterey Canyon dwarfs all other such canyons along the Pacific coast of North America. However, the known flow-rates and drainage area of the Salinas River in no way indicate the river as it presently stands was ever capable of creating such a large submarine outflow canyon . The current hypothesis is that, at one point in the Miocene epoch , many millions of years ago,

5566-433: The Salinas Valley, and the resultant lowering of water tables, the lower reaches of the Salinas river (north of King City) remained entirely dry during the three years 2013–2016. Nonetheless, with sufficiently heavy rains, and on rare occasions, this now normally dry runoff feature is still capable of quickly transforming itself back into a fast-flowing river. In rainfall-induced flood conditions, it can at times measure over

5687-449: The Salinas Valley, and the resulting most typical dry-river conditions. Despite regularly running dry, the Salinas River has at the same time had occasional notable floods. Among these were the flood of 1964 and the flood of 1995. The geological history of the ancient Salinas River is currently held by tectonic plate theory to likely be rather unique among the many rivers of the western North American seaboard: The shifting position of

5808-406: The Southwest or other parts of the United States involved the lack of Mexican government labor inspectors. According to Galarza, "In 1943, ten Mexican labor inspectors were assigned to ensure contract compliance throughout the United States; most were assigned to the Southwest and two were responsible for the northwestern area." The lack of inspectors made the policing of pay and working conditions in

5929-801: The State Department, the Department of Labor, and the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) in the Department of Justice. Under this pact, the laborers were promised decent living conditions in labor camps, such as adequate shelter, food and sanitation, as well as a minimum wage pay of 30 cents an hour. The agreement also stated that braceros would not be subject to discrimination such as exclusion from "white" areas. This program, which commenced in Stockton, California in August 1942,

6050-547: The Steinbeck Festival are major attractions in Salinas . On August 30, 2007, 8,000 cartons of spinach (from Metz Fresh, a King City -based grower and shipper, Salinas Valley, California ) were recalled after Salmonella was discovered on routine testing. The incident led to a call from some consumer advocates and lawmakers for greater oversight in food safety, even if 90% of the suspect vegetable did not reach

6171-471: The U.S. for temporary work. There were a number of hearings about the United States– Mexico migration , which overheard complaints about Public Law 78 and how it did not adequately provide them with a reliable supply of workers. Simultaneously, unions complained that the braceros' presence was harmful to U.S. workers. The outcome of this meeting was that the United States ultimately got to decide how

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6292-525: The U.S. reception centers, workers were inspected by health departments, stripped & sprayed with DDT a dangerous pesticide. They were then sent to contractors that were looking for workers. Operations were primarily run by the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) along with other military personnel. Braceros frequently dealt with harassment from these officials and could be kept for extended periods of time in

6413-477: The U.S. well after their labor contracts were terminated. In the first year, over a million Mexicans were sent back to Mexico; 3.8 million were repatriated when the operation was finished. The criticisms of unions and churches made their way to the U.S. Department of Labor, as they lamented that the braceros were negatively affecting the U.S. farmworkers in the 1950s. In 1955, the AFL and CIO spokesman testified before

6534-652: The U.S. State of California . All three of the Salinas Valley missions remain intact to this day, the Soledad mission having evolved into the City of Soledad , and the San ;Miguel mission having evolved into the unincorporated village of San Miguel . The San Antonio mission is now embedded in Fort Hunter Liggett (a U.S. Army garrison). The mission period ended with the Mexican revolution and

6655-465: The United States between the years 1942 and 1964. The program, which was designed to fill agriculture shortages during World War II, offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U.S. states. It was the largest guest worker program in U.S. history. The program was the result of a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4, 1942, when the United States signed

6776-483: The United States; and to migrants' exposure to Protestant missionary activity while in the United States. Starting in 1953, Catholic priests were assigned to some bracero communities, and the Catholic Church engaged in other efforts specifically targeted at braceros . Labor unions that tried to organize agricultural workers after World War II targeted the Bracero Program as a key impediment to improving

6897-411: The agreement of a guaranteed a minimum wage of 30 cents per hour and "humane treatment" for workers involved in the program. Despite what the law extended to braceros and what growers agreed upon in their contracts, braceros often faced rigged wages, withheld pay, and inconsistent disbursement of wages. Bracero railroaders were usually paid by the hour, whereas agricultural braceros sometime were paid by

7018-417: The agricultural sector, and the damming of the river and its tributaries may be contributing factors causing the now mostly-dry condition of the riverbed. The Monterey County Water Resources Agency currently operates a water use monitoring program which requires that all agricultural water users self-report annually on the estimated amount of groundwater pumped from the shrinking Salinas Valley aquifer. This

7139-483: The arrival of Hispanic and American settlers in the area, the Salinas River was once home to abundant fish and beaver populations. Regarding historical fish populations, the Arroyo Seco is the only major Salinas River tributary which has remained undammed and as of 2015, still supported a small remnant population of the threatened Central Coast Steelhead trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) that once spawned throughout in

7260-705: The banks of the Salinas river were the Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad established in 1791, and the Mission San Miguel Arcángel , established in 1797. The Mission San Antonio de Padua was established during this same time period in the Salinas Valley, but not on the river itself. These three missions were a part of the chain of 21 missions , then commissioned by the Spanish government in Alta California , now

7381-581: The bracero program have generated significant local and international struggles challenging the U.S. government and Mexican government to identify and return 10 percent mandatory deductions taken from their pay, from 1942 to 1948, for savings accounts that they were legally guaranteed to receive upon their return to Mexico at the conclusion of their contracts. Many field working braceros never received their savings, but most railroad working braceros did. Lawsuits presented in federal courts in California , in

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7502-594: The braceros. The Department of Labor continued to try to get more pro-worker regulations passed, however the only one that was written into law was the one guaranteeing U.S. workers the same benefits as the braceros, which was signed in 1961 by President Kennedy as an extension of Public Law 78. After signing, Kennedy said, "I am aware ... of the serious impact in Mexico if many thousands of workers employed in this country were summarily deprived of this much-needed employment." Thereupon, bracero employment plummeted; going from 437,000 workers in 1959 to 186,000 in 1963. During

7623-563: The camps in order to work on farms in the Northwest. The strike at Blue Mountain Cannery erupted in late July. After "a white female came forward stating that she had been assaulted and described her assailant as 'looking Mexican' ... the prosecutor's and sheriff's office imposed a mandatory 'restriction order' on both the Mexican and Japanese camps." No investigation took place nor were any Japanese or Mexican workers asked their opinions on what happened. The Walla Walla Union-Bulletin reported

7744-497: The coast to Soledad in the Salinas Valley and into northern San Luis Obispo County. The Spanish colonial missions of San Miguel Arcángel , San Antonio de Padua and Nuestra Señora de la Soledad were all founded within the Salinas Valley in the late 18th century; from the last grew the city of Soledad . The Franciscans baptized the native population at the missions. The Native Americans had no immunity to European diseases like smallpox and measles , so many died and their culture

7865-493: The contract, the braceros were to be paid a minimum wage (no less than that paid to comparable American workers), with guaranteed housing, and sent to work on farms and in railroad depots throughout the country - although most braceros worked in the western United States." Unfortunately, this was not always simple and one of the most complicated aspects of the bracero program was the worker's wage garnishment. The U.S. and Mexico made an agreement to garnish bracero wages, save them for

7986-506: The contracted worker (agriculture or railroad), and put them into bank accounts in Mexico for when the bracero returned to their home. Like many, braceros who returned home did not receive those wages. Many never had access to a bank account at all. It is estimated that the money the U.S. "transferred" was about $ 32 million. Often braceros would have to take legal action in attempts to recover their garnished wages. According to bank records money transferred often came up missing or never went into

8107-475: The country. The women's families were not persuaded then by confessions and promises of love and good wages to help start a family and care for it. As a result, bracero men who wished to marry had to repress their longings and desires as did women to demonstrate to the women's family that they were able to show strength in emotional aspects, and therefore worthy of their future wife. Due to gender roles and expectations, bracero wives and girlfriends left behind had

8228-504: The customary method of computing earnings on a piecework basis after a job was completed. This meant that full payment was delayed for long after the end of regular pay periods. It was also charged that time actually worked was not entered on the daily time slips and that payment was sometimes less than 30 cents per hour. April 9, 1943, the Mexican Labor Agreement is sanctioned by Congress through Public Law 45 which led to

8349-412: The examination rooms. These rooms held as many as 40 men at a time, and migrants would have to wait 6 or more hours to be examined. According to first hand accounts, personnel would often process 800 to 1600 braceros at a time and, on occasion, upwards of 3100. The invasive health procedures and overcrowded processing centers would continue to persist throughout the program's 22-year tenure. To address

8470-459: The fields, and many of them quickly quit or staged strikes because of the poor working conditions, including oppressive heat and decrepit housing. The program was cancelled after the first summer. The Catholic Church in Mexico was opposed to the Bracero Program, objecting to the separation of husbands and wives and the resulting disruption of family life; to the supposed exposure of migrants to vices such as prostitution, alcohol, and gambling in

8591-422: The flash-flood prone Arroyo Seco , its fourth major tributary (in wet years). It flows 3 miles (4.8 km) south of the city of Salinas before cutting through Fort Ord and flows into central Monterey Bay approximately 3 miles west of Castroville . The final stretch of the river forms a lagoon protected by the 367-acre (1.49 km ) Salinas River National Wildlife Refuge and its outflow to Monterey Bay

8712-413: The flower industry and grape vineyards planted by world-famous vintners. In particular, a large majority of the salad greens consumed in the U.S. are grown within this region. Strawberries, lettuce, tomatoes, and spinach are the dominant crops in the valley. Other crops include broccoli, cauliflower, wine grapes, artichokes, and celery. Due to the intensity of local agriculture, the area has earned itself

8833-458: The form of a strike against this perceived injustice. Some 170 Mexicans and 230 Japanese struck. After multiple meetings including some combination of government officials, Cannery officials, the county sheriff, the Mayor of Dayton and representatives of the workers, the restriction order was voided. Those in power actually showed little concern over the alleged assault. Their real concern was ensuring

8954-439: The fulfillment of any requirements of a migratory nature, should have been met by the employer. Most employment agreements contained language to the effect of, "Mexican workers will be furnished without cost to them with hygienic lodgings and the medical and sanitary services enjoyed without cost to them will be identical with those furnished to the other agricultural workers in regions where they may lend their services." These were

9075-424: The goal of improving their lives. Yet, the power dynamic all braceros encountered offered little space or control by them over their living environment or working conditions. As Gamboa points out, farmers controlled the pay (and kept it very low), hours of work and even transportation to and from work. Transportation and living expenses from the place of origin to destination, and return, as well as expenses incurred in

9196-498: The guarantors of the contract, not U.S. employers. The braceros could not be used as replacement workers for U.S. workers on strike; however, the braceros were not allowed to go on strike or renegotiate wages. The agreement set forth that all negotiations would be between the two governments. A year later, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 was passed by the 82nd United States Congress whereas President Truman vetoed

9317-473: The labor camps. Some growers went to the extent of building three labor camps, one for whites, one for blacks, and the one for Mexicans. The living conditions were horrible, unsanitary, and poor. For example, in 1943 in Grants Pass, Oregon, 500 braceros suffered food poisoning, one of the most severe cases reported in the Northwest. This detrition of the quality and quantity of food persisted into 1945 until

9438-550: The lack of a prominent Mexican-American community which would allow for them to blend in and not have to return to Mexico as so many of their counterparts in the Southwest chose to do and also the lack of proximity to the border. Knowing this difficulty, the Mexican consulate in Salt Lake City, and later the one in Portland, Oregon, encouraged workers to protest their conditions and advocated on their behalf much more than

9559-453: The largest foreign worker program in U.S. history. From 1942 to 1947, only a relatively small number of braceros were admitted, accounting for less than 10 percent of U.S. hired workers. Yet both U.S. and Mexican employers became heavily dependent on braceros for willing workers; bribery was a common way to get a contract during this time. Consequently, several years of the short-term agreement led to an increase in undocumented immigration and

9680-420: The late 1990s and early 2000s (decade), highlighted the substandard conditions and documented the ultimate destiny of the savings accounts deductions, but the suit was thrown out because the Mexican banks in question never operated in the United States. Today, it is stipulated that ex-braceros can receive up to $ 3,500.00 as compensation for the 10% only by supplying check stubs or contracts proving they were part of

9801-575: The latter part of the Pleistocene epoch . Up until European settlement in Alta California , the indigenous people who lived along the Salinas River were the Rumsen in the northern Salinas Valley , and the Salinan in the southern Salinas Valley . The Chalon and Esselen peoples also lived in the general vicinity of the Salinas River. The Salinas river was first sighted by European settlers on 27 September 1769. This first European contact with

9922-460: The majority of the river may be more the result of human activity than of any recent changes in weather patterns. Rainfall patterns of recent years in the Salinas area have not significantly changed from historical average rainfall patterns; the 139-year average annual rainfall in Salinas is 13.26 inches (337 mm) per year, and the average annual rainfall since 2000 is 11.01 inches (280 mm) per year. Recent increases in water use, primarily in

10043-543: The natural outflow of the Estrella River and the controlled outflows of the Nacimiento and San Antonio reservoirs through their respective river tributaries in southern Monterey County . The river passes through the active San Ardo Oil Field , and then into and through the Salinas Valley. It flows past many small towns in the valley, including King City , Greenfield , and Soledad , where it combines with

10164-538: The nickname "America's Salad Bowl." The flower industry, grown in greenhouses, is now dominated by Matsui Nursery , which has been a major philanthropic benefactor to Salinas. Salinas Valley is also an important viticultural area. Three American Viticultural Association " American Viticultural Area " domains are located within Salinas Valley: the Arroyo Seco AVA , the Santa Lucia Highlands AVA , and

10285-423: The obligation to keep writing love letters, to stay in touch, and to stay in love while bracero men in the U.S. did not always respond or acknowledge them. Married women and young girls in relationships were not supposed to voice their concerns or fears about the strength of their relationship with bracero men, and women were frowned upon if they were to speak on their sexual and emotional longings for their men as it

10406-431: The overwhelming amount of undocumented migrants in the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service launched Operation Wetback in June 1954, as a way to repatriate illegal laborers back to Mexico. The illegal workers who came over to the states at the initial start of the program were not the only ones affected by this operation, there were also massive groups of workers who felt the need to extend their stay in

10527-461: The piece of produce which was packaged. Either way, these two contracted working groups were shorted more times than not. Bracero contracts indicated that they were to earn nothing less than minimum wage. In an article titled, "Proof of a Life Lived: The Plight of the Braceros and What It Says About How We Treat Records" written by Jennifer Orsorio, she describes this portion of wage agreement, "Under

10648-450: The possible benefits of the program As men stayed in the U.S., wives, girlfriends, and children were left behind often for decades. Bracero men searched for ways to send for their families and saved their earnings for when their families were able to join them. In the U.S., they made connections and learned the culture, the system, and worked to found a home for a family. The only way to communicate their plans for their families' futures

10769-520: The program during 1942 to 1948. It is estimated that, with interest accumulated, $ 500 million is owed to ex-braceros, who continue to fight to receive the money owed to them. The number of strikes in the Pacific Northwest is much longer than this list. Two strikes, in particular, should be highlighted for their character and scope: the Japanese-Mexican strike of 1943 in Dayton, Washington and

10890-455: The railroaders were subject to rigged wages, harsh or inadequate living spaces, food scarcity, and racial discrimination . Exploitation of the braceros went on well into the 1960s. American growers longed for a system that would admit Mexican workers and guarantee them an opportunity to grow and harvest their crops, and place them on the American market. Thus, during negotiations in 1948 over

11011-476: The railroads. The "Immigration and Naturalization authorized, and the U.S. attorney general approved under the 9th Proviso to Section 3 of the Immigration Act of February 5, 1917, the temporary admission of unskilled Mexican non-agricultural workers for railroad track and maintenance-of-way employment. The authorization stipulated that railroad braceros could only enter the United States for the duration of

11132-428: The railway company to ask the government permission to have workers come in from Mexico. The railroad version of the Bracero Program carried many similarities to agricultural braceros. It was written that, "The bracero railroad contract would preserve all the guarantees and provisions extended to agricultural workers." Only eight short months after agricultural braceros were once again welcomed to work, so were braceros on

11253-624: The raised section of the Pacific Plate that the river flows through was in ancient times aligned with the North American Plate at a point far south of its present location. The discovery of the Monterey Canyon , the remarkably deep submarine canyon extending into the Pacific from the mouth of the Salinas River, is the basis for the proposal of what is presently thought to be the most probable geological history of

11374-399: The replacement of missions with ranchos in the 1820s and 30s. Ranchos around the Salinas river included Rancho Las Salinas , Rancho Bolsa Nueva y Moro Cojo The Rancho period ended with the 1848 American seizure of California from Mexico. The City of Monterey , about 10 miles south of the mouth of the Salinas (at that time), was the capital city of Alta California , and the site of

11495-467: The restriction order read: Males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction or parentage are restricted to that area of Main Street of Dayton, lying between Front Street and the easterly end of Main Street. The aforesaid males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction are expressly forbidden to enter at any time any portion of the residential district of said city under penalty of law. The workers' response came in

11616-491: The river had been transformed into little more than a dry bedded run-off feature for the majority of its length. Until 1989 the Salinas River had a continuous flow throughout the year, stretching back to at least 1941 when the United States Geological Survey (USGS) began complete monitoring records in the Salinas area. Most probably primarily due to recent increases in agricultural water demand in

11737-465: The river mouth changed by 5.5 miles (8.8 km) to a new channel by Mulligan Hill. The old river bed was converted to farmland. The historic increase in agriculture and settlement in the area, and the related increased water consumption demands have had a significant impact on the Salinas River. The river now typically remains dry or without flow for the majority of the year, and downstream (north) of King City remained fully dry or with zero flow during

11858-520: The river valley provided the route of El Camino Real , the principal overland route from southern to northern Alta California , used by Spanish explorers and missionaries and early Mexican settlers. Bracero program The Bracero Program (from the Spanish term bracero [bɾaˈse.ɾo] , meaning "manual laborer" or "one who works using his arms") was a U.S. Government-sponsored program that imported Mexican farm and railroad workers into

11979-511: The river was a reference made by Fr.  Pedro Font on 4 March 1776. This name continued in use as late as 1850. After the American annexation of the area, it was renamed the Salinas River . The river was apparently renamed as the "Salinas" river by an American cartographer in 1858, ten years after the 1848 American seizure of Alta California from Mexico . In 1858 the newer name "Salinas" first appeared on an American-made map as

12100-531: The river was probably located in the vicinity of what is now Los Angeles County , having been carried north to its present position due to tectonic plate drift at the same rate as currently. When the ancient Salinas river was in that southern location, it may have served as the mouth of a river that drained the catchment of the Colorado River , that currently flows from the Rocky Mountains into

12221-519: The river was recorded by the Spanish "colonizing expedition" of Gaspar de Portolà . As was the practice of the Spanish government in the New World at the time, soldiers and priests were then typically sent out together on such colonizing expeditions. The Portolá expedition included Franciscan priests, who soon thereafter established two missions along the banks of the Salinas river (then referred to as el Rio de Monterey .) The new missions built along

12342-467: The shelves. 36°45′55″N 121°47′30″W  /  36.7654°N 121.7918°W  / 36.7654; -121.7918 Salinas River (California) The Salinas River ( Rumsen : ua kot taiauačorx ) is the longest river of the Central Coast region of California , running 175 miles (282 km) and draining 4,160 square miles (10,800 km ). It flows north-northwest and drains

12463-709: The slopes of the Los ;Machos Hills of the Los Padres National Forest . The only dam situated directly on the Salinas River (the Salinas Dam ) forms the small Santa Margarita Reservoir. The Salinas flows down the valley bounded on its southwestern side by the Santa Lucia Mountain Range , and bounded on its northeastern side by the Gabilan Mountain Range . It flows past Atascadero and Paso Robles (to Monterey). It receives

12584-507: The upper Salinas River watershed. More recent accounts suggested that beaver are no longer found along the northern reaches of the river, a recent comprehensive survey found beaver throughout the entire Salinas River mainstem and virtually all of its major tributaries, including the Estrella River. The use of the river for irrigation in the Salinas Valley makes it one of the most productive agricultural regions in California. It

12705-763: The valley is drawing seawater into the freshwater aquifer. The Salinas Valley Water Project, now under construction by the Monterey County Water Resources Agency, will use an inflatable dam near Salinas to capture more water during wet periods. Monterey County Water Recycling Projects, a combination of the Castroville Seawater Intrusion Project and the Salinas Valley Reclamation Project, started delivering recycled water to fields near Castroville in 1998. The project's goal

12826-882: The wages of domestic farm workers. These unions included the National Farm Laborers Union (NFLU), later called the National Agricultural Workers Union (NAWU), headed by Ernesto Galarza , and the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), AFL-CIO. During his tenure with the Community Service Organization , César Chávez received a grant from the AWOC to organize in Oxnard, California , which culminated in

12947-485: The war effort by replacing conscripted farmworkers, staying in effect until 1945 and employing about 100,000 men." In 1942 when the Bracero Program came to be, it was not only agriculture work that was contracted, but also railroad work. Just like braceros working in the fields, Mexican contract workers were recruited to work on the railroads. The Southern Pacific railroad was having a hard time keeping full-time rail crews on hand. The dilemma of short handed crews prompted

13068-472: The war." Over the course of the next few months, braceros began coming in by the thousands to work on railroads. Multiple railroad companies began requesting Mexican workers to fill labor shortages. Bracero railroaders were also in understanding of an agreement between the U.S. and Mexico to pay a living wage, and provide adequate food, housing, and transportation. Working in the U.S. was not easy for bracero railroaders. Oftentimes, just like agricultural braceros,

13189-401: The water for groundwater recharge , flood control and farming. Wells access the groundwater to irrigate about 275,000 acres (1,110 km) of fruits and vegetables and to supply the valley cities. The Salinas River itself is a sand river, so water appears on the surface only during heavy rains or when water is released from the upstream reservoirs. Increasing demand for water near the mouth of

13310-538: The words of agreements that all bracero employers had to come to but employers often showed that they couldn't stick with what they agreed on. Braceros had no say on any committees, agencies or boards that existed ostensibly to help establish fair working conditions for them. The lack of quality food angered braceros all over the U.S. According to the War Food Administrator, "Securing able cooks who were Mexicans or who had had experience in Mexican cooking

13431-457: The workers got back into the fields. Authorities threatened to send soldiers to force them back to work. Two days later the strike ended. Many of the Japanese and Mexican workers had threatened to return to their original homes, but most stayed there to help harvest the pea crop. First, like braceros in other parts of the U.S., those in the Northwest came to the U.S. looking for employment with

13552-427: The workers would enter the country by way of reception centers set up in various Mexican states and at the United States border. At these reception centers, potential braceros had to pass a series of examinations. The first step in this process required that the workers pass a local level selection before moving onto a regional migratory station where the laborers had to pass a number of physical examinations. Lastly, at

13673-401: The writer explains, "It was understood that five or six prominent growers have been under scrutiny by both regional and national officials of the department." This article came out of Los Angeles particular to agriculture braceros. However, just like many other subjections of the bracero, this article can easily be applied to railroaders. One key difference between the Northwest and braceros in

13794-565: The years 2013–2016. During the Spanish / Mexican / Mission period, the river was named El Rio de Monterey . When first encountered by the Spanish Portola Expedition on 27 September 1769, the members of the expedition at first suspected that they had found the Carmel River , that had been discovered earlier by Vizcaíno . One of the party members, Father Crespi, then proposed that the [Salinas] river might be

13915-446: Was a problem that was never completely solved." John Willard Carrigan, who was an authority on this subject after visiting multiple camps in California and Colorado in 1943 and 1944, commented, "Food preparation has not been adapted to the workers' habits sufficiently to eliminate vigorous criticisms. The men seem to agree on the following points: 1.) the quantity of food is sufficient, 2.) evening meals are plentiful, 3.) breakfast often

14036-434: Was deemed socially, religiously, and culturally inappropriate. The Bracero Program was an attractive opportunity for men who wished to either begin a family with a head start with American wages, or to men who were already settled and who wished to expand their earnings or their businesses in Mexico. As such, women were often those to whom both Mexican and US governments had to pitch the program to. Local Mexican government

14157-457: Was devastated. Many of the remaining people assimilated with Spanish and Mexican ranchers in the nineteenth century. The commercial farming sector of the Dust Bowl era forms the backdrop for several John Steinbeck stories including East of Eden , Tortilla Flat , Of Mice and Men , The Chrysanthemums , and Johnny Bear . At a railroad crossing about one mile south of Chualar ,

14278-715: Was feared by the US, as the program was originally designed as a temporary work force which would be sent back to Mexico eventually. After the 1964 termination of the Bracero Program, the A-TEAM, or Athletes in Temporary Employment as Agricultural Manpower , program of 1965 was meant to simultaneously deal with the resulting shortage of farmworkers and a shortage of summer jobs for teenagers. More than 18,000 17-year-old high school students were recruited to work on farms in Texas and California. Only 3,300 ever worked in

14399-497: Was intended to fill the labor shortage in agriculture because of World War II. In Texas, the program was banned by Mexico for several years during the mid-1940s due to the discrimination and maltreatment of Mexicans, which included lynchings along the border. Texas Governor Coke Stevenson pleaded on several occasions to the Mexican government that the ban be lifted to no avail. The program lasted 22 years and offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U.S. states—becoming

14520-486: Was through mail in letters sent to their women. These letters went through the US postal system and originally they were inspected before being posted for anything written by the men indicating any complaints about unfair working conditions. However, once it became known that men were actively sending for their families to permanently reside in the US, they were often intercepted, and many men were left with no responses from their women. Permanent settlement of bracero families

14641-416: Was well aware that whether male business owners went into the program came down to the character of their wives; whether they would be willing to take on the family business on their own in place of their husbands or not. Workshops were often conducted in villages all over Mexico open to women for them to learn about the program and to encourage their husbands to integrate into it as they were familiarized with

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