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62-626: Salcedo is a Spanish surname meaning "of or relating to the Willow Tree ". Salcedo or Salzedo may refer to: Willow Willows , also called sallows and osiers , of the genus Salix , comprise around 350 species (plus numerous hybrids) of typically deciduous trees and shrubs , found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions. Most species are known as willow , but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier , and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow (from Old English sealh , related to

124-468: A style and an apical structure called a stigma that receives pollen. The word "pistil" comes from Latin pistillum meaning pestle . A sterile pistil in a male flower is referred to as a pistillode . The pistils of a flower are considered to be composed of one or more carpels . A carpel is the female reproductive part of the flower—usually composed of the style , and stigma (sometimes having its individual ovary , and sometimes connecting to

186-409: A broad stigmatic crest along the margin allows pollen tubes access along the surface and between hairs at the margins. Two kinds of fusion have been distinguished: postgenital fusion that can be observed during the development of flowers, and congenital fusion that cannot be observed i.e., fusions that occurred during phylogeny. But it is very difficult to distinguish fusion and non-fusion processes in

248-400: A conical or dome-shaped receptacle . In later lineages, carpels tend to be in whorls . The relationship of the other flower parts to the gynoecium can be an important systematic and taxonomic character. In some flowers, the stamens, petals, and sepals are often said to be "fused" into a "floral tube" or hypanthium . However, as Leins & Erbar (2010) pointed out, "the classical view that

310-426: A few days; they require warm and moist conditions to take root. The plants can also reproduce vegetatively from decapitated stumps and branches. Willows produce a modest amount of nectar from which bees can make honey , and are especially valued as a source of early pollen for bees. Various animals browse the foliage or shelter amongst the plants. Beavers use willows to build dams. The trees are used as food by

372-421: A hypanthium is present, but is either free from the gynoecium (in which case it may appear to be a cup or tube surrounding the gynoecium) or connected partly to the gynoecium (with the stamens, petals, and sepals attached to the hypanthium part of the way up the ovary). Perigynous flowers are often referred to as having a half-inferior ovary (or, sometimes, partially inferior or half-superior ). This arrangement

434-497: A letter to the Royal Society describing his experiments with powdered bark of white willow ( Salix alba ). He had noticed the willow bark tasted bitter, like 'Peruvian Bark' ( cinchona ), which was used to treat fevers, and he speculated that the willow would have a similar effect. Over several years he tested it on as many as fifty patients and found it to be highly effective (especially when mixed with cinchona). Whether this

496-443: A shared basal ovary) —and usually interpreted as modified leaves that bear structures called ovules , inside which egg cells ultimately form. A pistil may consist of one carpel (with its ovary, style and stigma); or it may comprise several carpels joined together to form a single ovary, the whole unit called a pistil. The gynoecium may present as one or more uni-carpellate pistils or as one multi-carpellate pistil. (The number of carpels

558-460: A similar function to a megasporophyll , but typically includes a stigma, and is fused, with ovules enclosed in the enlarged lower portion, the ovary. In some basal angiosperm lineages, Degeneriaceae and Winteraceae , a carpel begins as a shallow cup where the ovules develop with laminar placentation, on the upper surface of the carpel. The carpel eventually forms a folded, leaf-like structure, not fully sealed at its margins. No style exists, but

620-400: A stalked, integumented megasporangium (also called the nucellus ). Typically, one cell in the megasporangium undergoes meiosis resulting in one to four megaspores. These develop into a megagametophyte (often called the embryo sac) within the ovule. The megagametophyte typically develops a small number of cells, including two special cells, an egg cell and a binucleate central cell, which are

682-528: A syncarpous gynoecium has a single style and stigma and a single locule in the ovary, it may be necessary to examine how the ovules are attached. Each carpel will usually have a distinct line of placentation where the ovules are attached. Pistils begin as small primordia on a floral apical meristem, forming later than, and closer to the (floral) apex than sepal, petal and stamen primordia. Morphological and molecular studies of pistil ontogeny reveal that carpels are most likely homologous to leaves. A carpel has

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744-425: A syncarpous gynoecium, the "fused" ovaries of the constituent carpels may be referred to collectively as a single compound ovary. It can be a challenge to determine how many carpels fused to form a syncarpous gynoecium. If the styles and stigmas are distinct, they can usually be counted to determine the number of carpels. Within the compound ovary, the carpels may have distinct locules divided by walls called septa . If

806-423: A unitary intercalary meristem. Evolutionary developmental biology investigates such developmental processes that arise or change during evolution. If the hypanthium is absent, the flower is hypogynous , and the stamens, petals, and sepals are all attached to the receptacle below the gynoecium. Hypogynous flowers are often referred to as having a superior ovary . This is the typical arrangement in most flowers. If

868-513: A willow will attempt to put out leaves and flowers. In the northern hemisphere, leaf drop in autumn occurs when day length shortens to approximately ten hours and 25 minutes, which varies by latitude (as early as the first week of October for boreal species such as S. alaxensis and as late as the third week of December for willows growing in far southern areas). With the exception of Salix martiana , willows are dioecious , with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants;

930-536: Is apocarpous . If a gynoecium has multiple carpels "fused" into a single structure, it is syncarpous . A syncarpous gynoecium can sometimes appear very much like a monocarpous gynoecium. The degree of connation ("fusion") in a syncarpous gynoecium can vary. The carpels may be "fused" only at their bases, but retain separate styles and stigmas. The carpels may be "fused" entirely, except for retaining separate stigmas. Sometimes (e.g., Apocynaceae ) carpels are fused by their styles or stigmas but possess distinct ovaries. In

992-500: Is a hybrid of Peking willow ( Salix babylonica ) from China and white willow ( Salix alba ) from Europe. The widely planted Chinese willow Salix matsudana is now considered a synonym of S. babylonica . Numerous cultivars of Salix have been developed and named over the centuries. New selections of cultivars with superior technical and ornamental characteristics have been chosen deliberately and applied to various purposes. Many cultivars and unmodified species of Salix have gained

1054-445: Is also used by botanists to refer to a cluster of archegonia and any associated modified leaves or stems present on a gametophyte shoot in mosses , liverworts , and hornworts . The corresponding terms for the male parts of those plants are clusters of antheridia within the androecium. Flowers that bear a gynoecium but no stamens are called pistillate or carpellate . Flowers lacking a gynoecium are called staminate. The gynoecium

1116-546: Is called the funiculus. Stigmas can vary from long and slender to globe-shaped to feathery. The stigma is the receptive tip of the carpel(s), which receives pollen at pollination and on which the pollen grain germinates . The stigma is adapted to catch and trap pollen, either by combining pollen of visiting insects or by various hairs, flaps, or sculpturings. The style and stigma of the flower are involved in most types of self incompatibility reactions. Self-incompatibility, if present, prevents fertilization by pollen from

1178-448: Is denoted by terms such as tricarpellate (three carpels).) Carpels are thought to be phylogenetically derived from ovule-bearing leaves or leaf homologues ( megasporophylls ), which evolved to form a closed structure containing the ovules. This structure is typically rolled and fused along the margin. Although many flowers satisfy the above definition of a carpel, there are also flowers that do not have carpels because in these flowers

1240-474: Is often referred to as female because it gives rise to female (egg-producing) gametophytes; however, strictly speaking sporophytes do not have a sex, only gametophytes do. Gynoecium development and arrangement is important in systematic research and identification of angiosperms , but can be the most challenging of the floral parts to interpret. Unlike (most) animals , plants grow new organs after embryogenesis , including new roots, leaves, and flowers. In

1302-436: Is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules numerous. The scientific use of the genus name Salix originates with Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The modern concept of types did not exist at the time, so types for Linnaeus' genera had to be designated later. The type species , i.e., the species on which the genus name is based, is Salix alba , based on a conserved type. The generic name Salix comes from Latin and

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1364-522: Is particularly frequent in the rose family and saxifrages . Occasionally, the gynoecium is born on a stalk, called the gynophore , as in Isomeris arborea . Within the ovary, each ovule is born by a placenta or arises as a continuation of the floral apex. The placentas often occur in distinct lines called lines of placentation . In monocarpous or apocarpous gynoecia, there is typically a single line of placentation in each ovary. In syncarpous gynoecia,

1426-635: Is uncertain. The seeds of the Haluppu-tree were recommended in the Sumerian narrative of Gilgameš, Enkidu and the Nether World as treatment for infertility, but the "Haluppu-tree" could have been oak, poplar or willow. The ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus mentions willow (of uncertain species) in three remedies. One, as part of an elaborate recipe for a poultice to "make the met supple," which involved 36 other ingredients including "fruit of

1488-667: The Latin word salix , willow). Some willows (particularly arctic and alpine species) are low-growing or creeping shrubs; for example, the dwarf willow ( Salix herbacea ) rarely exceeds 6 centimetres ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) in height, though it spreads widely across the ground. Willows all have abundant watery bark sap , which is heavily charged with salicylic acid , soft, usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches, and large, fibrous, often stoloniferous roots . The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to live, and roots readily sprout from aerial parts of

1550-642: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . Most recently, Salix has become an important source for bioenergy production and for various ecosystem services . Names of hybrids and cultivars were until recently (2021) compiled by a working party of the UN FAO, the International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRAs) for the genus Salix (willows) Archived 7 December 2018 at

1612-594: The Wayback Machine , but it is no longer active. The Quinault people made the bark into a twine which sometimes served as harpoon line. The wood was used by some Native American tribes to start fires by friction , the shoots to weave baskets , and both the branches and stems to build various items including fishing weirs . The leaves and bark of the willow have been mentioned in ancient texts from Assyria , Sumer and Egypt and in Ancient Greece

1674-409: The gametes involved in double fertilization . The central cell, once fertilized by a sperm cell from the pollen becomes the first cell of the endosperm , and the egg cell once fertilized become the zygote that develops into the embryo . The gap in the integuments through which the pollen tube enters to deliver sperm to the egg is called the micropyle . The stalk attaching the ovule to the placenta

1736-447: The larvae of some species of Lepidoptera , such as the mourning cloak butterfly . Ants, such as wood ants , are common on willows inhabited by aphids , coming to collect aphid honeydew , as sometimes do wasps . Willow species are hosts to more than a hundred aphid species, belonging to Chaitophorus and other genera, forming large colonies to feed on plant juices, on the underside of leaves in particular. Corythucha elegans ,

1798-487: The active constituent. It was long after the invention of aspirin that the idea emerged that willow bark is an effective painkiller. It may often be based on the belief that willow actually contains aspirin. Articles asserting that the ancients used willow for this purpose have been published in academic journals such as the British Journal of Haematology . There are now many papers, books and articles repeating

1860-486: The bud scale is fused into a cap-like shape, but in some species it wraps around and the edges overlap. The leaves are simple, feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate. Usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the stipules often very conspicuous, resembling tiny, round leaves, and sometimes remaining for half the summer. On some species, however, they are small, inconspicuous, and caducous (soon falling). In color,

1922-413: The bud, but orange or purple after the flower opens; they are two-celled and the cells open latitudinally. The filaments are threadlike, usually pale brown, and often bald. The pistillate (female) flowers are also without calyx or corolla, and consist of a single ovary accompanied by a small, flat nectar gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is likewise borne on the rachis of a catkin. The ovary

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1984-440: The catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves. The staminate (male) flowers have neither calyx nor corolla ; they consist simply of stamens, varying in number from two to 10, accompanied by a nectariferous gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is itself borne on the rachis of a drooping raceme called a catkin, or ament. This scale is square, entire, and very hairy. The anthers are rose-colored in

2046-604: The causes of fevers were poorly understood, and there is no suggestion at all of any possible analgesic effect from the use of willow. The first lasting evidence that salicylate, from willow and other plant species, might have real medicinal uses came in 1876, when the Scottish physician Thomas MacLagan experimented with salicin as a treatment for acute rheumatism , with considerable success, as he reported in The Lancet . Meanwhile, German scientists tried salicylic acid in

2108-653: The claim that the ancients used willow for pain relief, and numerous willow-based products can be purchased for this purpose. Modern research suggests that only the mildest analgesic effect could be derived from the use of willow extract, and even that may be due to flavonoids and polyphenols as much as salicylic acid. Some of humans' earliest manufactured items may have been made from willow. A fishing net made from willow dates back to 8300 BC. Basic crafts, such as baskets, fish traps, wattle fences and wattle and daub house walls, were woven from osiers or withies (rod-like willow shoots, often grown in pollards ). One of

2170-537: The development of aspirin in the late 1800s." Herbal uses of willow have continued into modern times. In the early 20th century, Maud Grieve described using the bark and the powdered root of white willow ( Salix alba ) for its tonic , antiperiodic and astringent qualities and recommended its use in treating dyspepsia, worms, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. Like other herbalists, she makes no mention of it having any analgesic effect, despite widespread awareness of aspirin by this time, and she considered tannin to be

2232-469: The different tissues that produce the parts of the gynoecium including the pistil, carpels, ovary, and ovules; the carpel margin meristem (arising from the carpel primordium ) produces the ovules , ovary septum, and the transmitting track, and plays a role in fusing the apical margins of carpels. The gynoecium may consist of one or more separate pistils. A pistil typically consists of an expanded basal portion called an ovary , an elongated section called

2294-439: The dompalm, beans and amaa grains." The meaning of met is uncertain, but it may be something to do with the nervous system. The second is as part of a treatment for the "Great Debility," when "rush from the green willow tree" is combined with ass's semen, fresh bread, herbs of the field, figs, grapes and wine. Finally, it is used as a stiffening agent in a concoction of "fat flesh, figs, dates, incense, garlic and sweet beer" to put

2356-476: The evolution of flowering plants. Some processes that have been considered congenital (phylogenetic) fusions appear to be non-fusion processes such as, for example, the de novo formation of intercalary growth in a ring zone at or below the base of primordia. Therefore, "it is now increasingly acknowledged that the term 'fusion,' as applied to phylogeny (as in 'congenital fusion') is ill-advised." Basal angiosperm groups tend to have carpels arranged spirally around

2418-512: The flowering plants, the gynoecium develops in the central region of the flower as a carpel or in groups of fused carpels. After fertilization, the gynoecium develops into a fruit that provides protection and nutrition for the developing seeds, and often aids in their dispersal. The gynoecium has several specialized tissues. The tissues of the gynoecium develop from genetic and hormonal interactions along three-major axes. These tissue arise from meristems that produce cells that differentiate into

2480-434: The form of sodium salicylate, a sodium salt, with less success and more severe side effects. The treatment of rheumatic fever with salicin gradually gained some acceptance in medical circles. The discovery of acetanilide , in the 1880s, gave rise to an 'acetylation' craze, where chemists experimented with adding an acetyl group to various aromatic organic compounds. Back in 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated

2542-628: The forms of Welsh coracle boat traditionally uses willow in the framework. Thin or split willow rods can be woven into wicker , which has a long history. The relatively pliable willow is less likely to split while being woven than many other woods, and can be bent around sharp corners in basketry. Willow wood is used in the manufacture of boxes , brooms , cricket bats , cradle boards , chairmans and other furniture, dolls , willow flutes , poles , sweat lodges , toys, turnery, tool handles, wood veneer , wands and whistles . In addition, tannin , fibre , paper, rope and string can be produced from

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2604-656: The genus are known from the early Eocene of North America, with the earliest occurrences in Europe during the Early Oligocene . The genus Salix is made up of around 350 species of deciduous trees and shrubs . They hybridise freely, and over 160 such hybrids have been named. Examples of well-known willows include: Willows are shade tolerant and typically short-lived. They require disturbances to outcompete conifers or large deciduous species. The seeds are tiny, plentiful, carried by wind and water, and viable only for

2666-414: The ground (an exception is the peachleaf willow ( Salix amygdaloides )). One famous example of such growth from cuttings involves the poet Alexander Pope , who begged a twig from a parcel tied with twigs sent from Spain to Lady Suffolk . This twig was planted and thrived, and legend has it that all of England's weeping willows are descended from this first one. Willows are extensively cultivated around

2728-594: The heart into proper working order and make it take up nourishment. The Roman author Aulus Cornelius Celsus only mentions willow once: the leaves, pounded and boiled in vinegar, were to be used as treatment for uterine prolapse , but it is unclear what he considered the therapeutic action to be; it is unlikely to have been pain relief, as he recommended cauterization in the following paragraph. Nicholas Culpeper , in The Complete Herbal , gives many uses for willow, including to staunch wounds, to "stay

2790-424: The heat of lust" in man or woman, and to provoke urine ("if stopped"), but he makes no mention of any supposed analgesic properties. His recommendation to use the burnt ashes of willow bark, mixed with vinegar, to "take away warts, corns, and superfluous flesh," seems to correspond with modern uses of salicylic acid . William Turner 's account, written about 1597, focuses on the ability of the leaves and bark to "stay

2852-495: The hypanthium is present up to the base of the style(s), the flower is epigynous . In an epigynous flower, the stamens, petals, and sepals are attached to the hypanthium at the top of the ovary or, occasionally, the hypanthium may extend beyond the top of the ovary. Epigynous flowers are often referred to as having an inferior ovary . Plant families with epigynous flowers include orchids , asters , and evening primroses . Between these two extremes are perigynous flowers, in which

2914-483: The late 1990s, Daniel Moerman reported many uses of willow by Native Americans. One modern field guide claims that Native Americans across the Americas relied on the willow as a staple of their medical treatments, using the bark to treat ailments such as sore throat and tuberculosis, and further alleging that "Several references mention chewing willow bark as an analgesic for headache and other pain, apparently presaging

2976-400: The leaves show a great variety of greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish color. Willows are among the earliest woody plants to leaf out in spring and the last to drop their leaves in autumn. In the northern hemisphere, leafout may occur as early as February depending on the climate and is stimulated by air temperature. If daytime highs reach 10 °C (50 °F) for a few consecutive days,

3038-436: The lines of placentation can be regularly spaced along the wall of the ovary ( parietal placentation ), or near the center of the ovary. In the latter case, separate terms are used depending on whether or not the ovary is divided into separate locules. If the ovary is divided, with the ovules born on a line of placentation at the inner angle of each locule, this is axile placentation . An ovary with free central placentation , on

3100-487: The medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time. More than 40 years later in 1897, Felix Hoffmann created the same acid (in his case derived from the Spiraea plant), which was found in 1899 to have an analgesic effect. This acid was named " Aspirin " by Hoffmann's employer Bayer AG . The discovery of aspirin is therefore only indirectly connected to willow. In

3162-438: The other hand, consists of a single compartment without septae and the ovules are attached to a central column that arises directly from the floral apex (axis). In some cases a single ovule is attached to the bottom or top of the locule ( basal or apical placentation , respectively). In flowering plants, the ovule (from Latin ovulum meaning small egg) is a complex structure born inside ovaries. The ovule initially consists of

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3224-444: The ovule(s), although enclosed, are borne directly on the floral apex. Therefore, the carpel has been redefined as an appendage that encloses ovule(s) and may or may not bear them. However, the most unobjectionable definition of the carpel is simply that of an appendage that encloses an ovule or ovules. If a gynoecium has a single carpel, it is called monocarpous . If a gynoecium has multiple, distinct (free, unfused) carpels, it

3286-470: The physician Hippocrates wrote about its medicinal properties in the fifth century BC. Interpreting Mesopotamian cuneiform texts is a challenge, especially when looking for something as specific as a species of plant being used to treat a recognisable condition. Some 5,000 medical prescriptions have been identified from Babylonian writings of the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, involving 1,300 drugs from 340 different plants. Whether any of these relate to willow

3348-409: The plant. The leaves are typically elongated, but they might also be round to oval, frequently with serrated edges. Most species are deciduous ; semi- evergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e.g. Salix micans and S. australior in the eastern Mediterranean . All the buds are lateral; no absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale. Usually,

3410-444: The spitting of blood, and all other fluxes of blood", if boiled in wine and drunk, but adds a treatment for fever, saying: "the green boughs with the leaves may very well be brought into chambers and set about the beds of those that be sick of fevers, for they do mightily cool the heat of the air, which thing is a wonderful refreshing to the sick patients." In 1763, Reverend Edward Stone , of Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, sent

3472-407: The wall of the inferior ovary results from the "congenital" fusion of dorsal carpel flanks and the floral axis does not correspond to the ontogenetic processes that can actually be observed. All that can be seen is an intercalary growth in a broad circular zone that changes the shape of the floral axis (receptacle)." And what happened during evolution is not a phylogenetic fusion but the formation of

3534-971: The willow lace bug, is a bug species in the family Tingidae found on willows in North America. Rhabdophaga rosaria is a type of gall found on willows. Rust , caused by fungi of genus Melampsora , is known to damage leaves of willows, covering them with orange spots. Some Native Americans allowed wildfires to burn and set fires intentionally, allowing new stands to form. A small number of willow species were widely planted in Australia, notably as erosion -control measures along watercourses. They are now regarded as invasive weeds which occupy extensive areas across southern Australia and are considered 'Weeds of National Significance'. Many catchment management authorities are removing and replacing them with native trees. Almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on

3596-535: The wood. Willow is used in the manufacture of double basses for backs, sides and linings, and in making splines and blocks for bass repair. An aqueous extract of willow bark is used as a fungicide in the European Union. The willow bark extract is approved as a 'basic substance' product in the European Union and United Kingdom for the control of scab, leaf peach curl and powdery mildew on grapes, apples and peach crops. Pistillate The term gynoecium

3658-452: The world. They are used in hedges and landscaping. The high end shopping district of Ginza in Tokyo, Japan , has a long history of cultivating willow, and is well known for its willow lined streets. Willows are very cross-compatible, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation. A well-known ornamental example is the weeping willow ( Salix × sepulcralis ), which

3720-616: Was a real effect or not is unknown, but although Stone's remedy was experimented with by others at the time, it was never adopted by medical practitioners. During the American Civil War , Confederate forces also experimented with willow as a cure for malaria, without success. In his novel The Mysterious Island (1875), the French novelist Jules Verne outlined the state of scientific knowledge concerning medicinal uses of willow when one of his characters, Herbert (Harbert) Brown,

3782-625: Was already used by the Romans for various types of willow. A theory is that the word is ultimately derived from a Celtic language , sal meaning 'near' and lis meaning 'water', alluding to their habitat. Willows are classified into subgenera though what they should be is in flux. Morphological studies generally divide the species into 3 or 5 subgenera: Salix (though some split off subgenera Longifoliae and Protitae ), Chamaetia , and Vetrix . Phylogenetic studies have suggested that Chamaetia and Vetrix be in one clade. The oldest fossils of

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3844-409: Was suffering from a fever induced by a bullet wound: "The bark of the willow has, indeed, been justly considered as a succedaneum for Peruvian bark, as has also that of the horse-chestnut tree, the leaf of the holly, the snake-root, etc.", he wrote. In the story, Herbert is treated with powdered willow bark to no effect, and is saved when a supply of quinine is discovered. It is clear in the novel that

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