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46-472: The Lower Greensand typically comprises loose, unconsolidated sandstone (termed rubblestone/rubble in construction) and sands of varying grain size with subordinate amounts of siltstones, mudstones (containing smectites and similar) and limestones . The name "greensand" is derived from the presence of the green coloured mineral glauconite , which forms in shallow marine conditions. In the Weald of East Sussex

92-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in

138-799: A class of swelling clays. The term smectite is commonly used in Europe and in the UK while the term montmorillonite is preferred in North America, but both terms are equivalent and can be used interchangeably. For industrial and commercial applications, the term bentonite is mostly used in place of smectite or montmorillonite. The 2:1 layer (TOT) structure consists of two silica (SiO 2 ) tetrahedral (T) layers which are electrostatically cross-linked via an Al 2 O 3 ( gibbsite ), or Fe 2 O 3 , octahedral (O) central layer. The TOT elementary layers are not rigidly connected to each other but are separated by

184-425: A free space: the interlayer hosting hydrated cations and water molecules . Smectite can swell because of the reversible incorporation of water and cations in the interlayer space. The TOT layers are negatively charged because of the isomorphic substitution of Si(IV) atoms by Al(III) atoms in the two external silica tetrahedral layers and because of the replacement of Al(III) or Fe(III) atoms by Mg or Fe cations in

230-477: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and

276-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in

322-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment

368-608: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek

414-582: A shear zone at the boundary between the slip material and the undisturbed underlying Weald Clay . This sort of rotational slip occurs regularly along the coastline between Hythe and Folkestone , where the drainage basin faces inland, exerting a steady force, where the water is subterranean, outward towards the coastal cliffs. Smectite A smectite (from Ancient Greek σμηκτός ( smēktós )  'lubricated'; from σμηκτρίς ( smēktrís )  'walker's earth, fuller's earth '; lit.   ' rubbing earth; earth that has

460-630: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c.  300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as

506-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and

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552-570: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of

598-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected

644-482: Is also less prone to shrinking when desiccated. The degree of hydration of the cations and their corresponding hydrated radii explain the swelling or the shrinking behaviour of phyllosilicates. Other cations such as Mg and K ions exhibit even a more contrasted effect: highly hydrated magnesium ions are "swellers" as in vermiculite (totally expanded interlayer) while poorly hydrated potassium ions are "collapsers" like in illite (totally collapsed interlayer). As

690-666: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to

736-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in

782-824: Is known as the Faringdon Sand . In North Wiltshire as the Calne Sands Formation and in parts of Wiltshire, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire as the Seend Ironstone Formation. The Lower Greensand is one of the most landslide-susceptible formations in the UK with at least 288 known occurrences in South-East England recorded to the year 2000. Of the formations within the Lower Greensand, the Atherfield Clay

828-556: Is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c.  1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c.  1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c.  800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c.  500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been

874-607: Is the case for the Ypresian Clays found in Belgium and very rich in smectites. Smectites are commonly used in very diverse industrial applications. In civil engineering works, it is routinely used as a thick bentonite slurry when excavating deep and narrow trenches in the ground to support the lateral walls and to avoid their collapse. It is also used as mud for drilling fluids . Smectites, more commonly called bentonite, are candidate as buffer and backfill materials to fill

920-425: Is the most prone to landslip. Landslides are occasional, rapid movements of a mass of earth or rock sliding along a steep slope. They tend to occur after sustained heavy rain, when the water saturates overlying rock, making it heavy and liable to slide, others occur via soil creep is a very slow movement, occurring on very gentle slopes because of the way soils repeatedly expand and contract in wet and dry periods. When

966-707: The Aptian to Early Albian stages . The Group is the lowermost of two geological units that take their name from their colouration due to the presence of the mineral glauconite, the other being the Upper Greensand Formation . The unit was deposited in shallow marine conditions. In southern England the unit sharply but continuously overlies rocks of the Wealden Group . While elsewhere as the sea level rose it covered previously emergent highs of Jurassic rocks, unconformably overlying them. In

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1012-759: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect

1058-843: The Weald Basin , the Lower Greensand can usually be subdivided to formational levels with varying properties into, in ascending order, the Atherfield Clay Formation , the Hythe Formation , the Sandgate Formation , and the Folkestone Formation . North and west of London – including Cambridgeshire , Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire – it is referred to as the Woburn Sands Formation . In Oxfordshire it

1104-457: The porous matrix or the cracks of the volcanic ash deposit ( pumice , pozzolan ) dissolves most of amorphous silica (up to 50 wt.% of SiO 2 can be dissolved), leaving smectite in place. This mechanism is responsible for the formation of the bentonite deposit (Serrata de Nijar ) of Cabo de Gata in the south-east region of Almeria in Andalusia ( Spain ). Wyoming MX-80 bentonite

1150-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)

1196-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):

1242-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from

1288-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has

1334-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in

1380-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West

1426-615: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of

Lower Greensand Group - Misplaced Pages Continue

1472-485: The gibbsite central layer of the TOT elementary unit when an Al ion is replaced by a Mg ion in a gibbsite octahedra. The electrical imbalance is: +2 −3 = −1. The main cations in the smectite interlayers are Na and Ca . The sodium cations are responsible for the highest swelling of smectite while calcium ions have lower swelling properties. Calcium smectite has significantly less swelling capacity than sodium smectite but

1518-561: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from

1564-476: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to

1610-404: The inner gibbsite octahedral layer. As the +4 charges born by Si(IV), and normally compensated by −4 charges from the surrounding oxygen atoms, become +3 due to the substitution of Si(IV) by Al(III), an electrical imbalance occurs: +3 −4 = −1. The excess of negative charges in the TOT layer has to be compensated by the presence of positive cations in the interlayer. The same reasoning also applies to

1656-642: The interlayer space of smectites is more open and so more easily accessible to water and cations, smectites exhibit the highest cation-exchange capacity (CEC) of clay minerals commonly found in the soils. Only more expandable vermiculite and some rarer alumino-silicate minerals ( zeolites ) with inner channel structure can exhibit a higher CEC than smectite. Smectites are formed from the weathering of basalt , gabbro , and silica-rich volcanic glass (e.g., pumice , obsidian , rhyolite , dacite ). Many smectites are formed in volcanic hydrothermal system (such as geyser system) where hot water percolating through

1702-483: The lowermost part of the group is recognised by green glauconitic clays with a basal bed of phosphate nodules . These clays are overlain by green sandy clays and silts and finally homogeneous fine grained sands. The sediments are noted to become increasingly fine grained and glauconitic to the east. The Lower Greensand Group was deposited during the latter part of the Early Cretaceous Period, during

1748-508: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which

1794-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c.  1450 BC ) are in

1840-425: The property of cleaning ' ) is a mineral mixture of various swelling sheet silicates ( phyllosilicates ), which have a three-layer 2:1 (TOT) structure and belong to the clay minerals. Smectites mainly consist of montmorillonite , but can often contain secondary minerals such as quartz and calcite . In clay mineralogy, smectite is synonym of montmorillonite (also the name of a pure clay mineral phase) to indicate

1886-574: The slip in strongly permeable locations is prone to be straight downward on a rotational slip plane. This shift leaves a steep back face, or back-scar, with a toe raised significantly less. At ‘The Roughs’ in Kent , where a rotational slump occurred, slips of the Atherfield Clay (and all material above) have compromised sandstone blocks of Hythe Beds . Later translational slides have developed along

Lower Greensand Group - Misplaced Pages Continue

1932-562: The soil dries out, it contracts vertically, assisting the soil slowly down a slope. A common geomorphological, chiefly dependent on the local hydrology such as hydraulic action , at the base of the Lower Greensand is an escarpment, where the Hythe Beds overlie the Atherfield and Weald Clays, which is particularly susceptible to landslide. Most slip is attributed to massive sandstones overlying weaker shales and clays. The back part of

1978-414: The space around high-level radioactive waste in deep geological repositories. Smectites also serve as additive in paints or as thickening agent for various preparations. Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It

2024-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies

2070-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,

2116-625: Was formed in a similar way during the Cretaceous Period when volcanic ashes were falling in an inner sea on the American continent. The highly porous (with a large and easily accessible specific surface ) and very reactive volcanic ashes rapidly reacted with seawater . Because of silica hydrolysis , most of silica was dissolved in seawater and removed from the ashes giving rise to the formation of smectites. Smectites found in many marine clay deposits are often formed in this way as it

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