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89-637: Santiago Ventura Morales was born in 1968 and grew up in San Miguel Cuevas in the Mexican state of Oaxaca where he completed school through the sixth grade. At the age of 14 in 1982, Morales left his hometown in Mexico along with five cousins. An indigenous Mexican of Mixtec heritage, he moved to the United States to work as a migrant farm worker. In 1986, Morales was accused of murdering

178-408: A plurality voting system who heads a concurrently elected municipal council ( ayuntamiento ) responsible for providing all the public services for their constituents. The municipal council consists of a variable number of trustees and councillors ( regidores y síndicos ). Municipalities are responsible for public services (such as water and sewerage), street lighting, public safety, traffic, and

267-515: A 19-year-old migrant farm worker in an Oregon strawberry field after a fight. Ramiro Lopez Fidel was found dead on July 14, 1986, from a stabbing in Sandy, Oregon . Morales was arrested and put on trial in September. He was convicted on October 2, 1986, and sentenced to ten-years to life in prison after a trial in which he was provided a Spanish interpreter, despite the fact that as a Mixtec, Spanish

356-595: A devastating effect on the native population, due to European diseases and forced labor. In some areas the native population nearly or completely disappeared. It has been estimated that the native population of the region declined from 1.5 million in 1520 to 150,000 in 1650. Eventually, this prompted the Spanish to import African slaves to some regions of the state, mostly in the Costa Chica . This poor treatment of indigenous and African populations continued through

445-399: A gap for the wind to pass between mountain ranges, creating the best conditions for wind power in Mexico . Although it is the fifth-largest state in Mexico, it has the most biodiversity. There are more than 8,400 registered plant species, 738 bird species and 1,431 terrestrial vertebrate species, accounting for 50% of all species in Mexico. It is also among the five highest-ranking areas in

534-432: A palace, temple, market and residences. There were also some Mesoamerican ball courts . These and larger centers doubled as military fortresses in time of invasion. Important Zapotec and Mixtec sites include Yagul , Zaachila , Inguiteria , Yanhuitlan , Tamazulapan , Tejupan , and Teposcolula . For nearly all this time, these various entities were at war with one another, and faced the threat of Aztec expansion. While

623-756: A temperate climate. A few of the highest peaks, such as those in Tehuantepec and Putla have a cold climate. Precipitation varies from between 430 to 2,700 mm (16.9 to 106.3 in) per year. The Sierra Mazteca, Textepec and other areas near the Veracruz border have rains year round. The rest of the state receives the majority of its rain during the summer and early fall. The higher elevations can experience freezing temperatures in December and January. The Chivela mountain pass in Isthmus of Tehuantepec provides

712-474: A village called Zapotalito . It can be reached via Federal Highway 200 or by boat from Puerto Escondido. The park encompasses 132.73 square kilometres (51.25 square miles), about 30 km (12 sq mi) of which is taken by various lagoons such as the Laguna de Chacahua, Laguna de La Pastoria, and Laguna Las Salinas . There are various smaller lagoons that are connected by narrow channels. The rest of

801-677: Is Oaxaca de Juárez . Oaxaca is in southern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Guerrero to the west, Puebla to the northwest, Veracruz to the north, and Chiapas to the east. To the south, Oaxaca has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean. The state is best known for its indigenous peoples and cultures. The most numerous and best known are the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs , but 16 are officially recognized. These cultures have survived better than most others in Mexico due to

890-545: Is 2,500 m (8,202 ft) asl with peaks over 3,000 m (9,843 ft) asl and width averages at about 75 km (47 mi). The Sierra Atravesada is a prolongation of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas . This range is not as high as the other two with an average elevation of just over 600 meters (1,969 ft). Most of it is located in the Juchitán district running east–west. The only valleys of any real size are

979-611: Is 71.7 for men and 77.4 for women, just under the national average. Births far outpace deaths. In 2007, there were 122,579 births and 19,439 deaths. Approximately 85% profess the Catholic faith. Demographically, Oaxaca stands out due to the high percentage of indigenous peoples. It is estimated that at least a third are speakers of indigenous languages (with 50% not able to speak Spanish), accounting for 53% of Mexico's total indigenous language speaking population. The state straddles two Mesoamerican cultural areas. The first extends into

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1068-485: Is Coastal sub-humid and Temperate sub-humid. The main rivers that flow through the park are the Huayapan and San Felipe rivers. Most of their flows used to be utilized to meet drinking water needs of Oaxaca through an aqueduct in the early part of the 18th century, during the colonial period. However, it is now tapped for water supply through piped system to the city. The park covers 2,737 hectares (6,760 acres), including

1157-485: Is a prolific place for reptiles such as turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles. Of the 808 registered reptile species nationwide, 245 are found in the state. The state has the most amphibian species at 133, with one-third of all Mexican species of frogs and salamanders. It is home to 120 species of freshwater fish, 738 species of birds (70% of Mexico's total) and 190 species of mammals. Some insect forms such as grasshoppers, larvae and cochineal have economic importance for

1246-496: Is also considered a legend and a symbol for the indigenous population of the state. Porfirio Díaz was Juárez's ally through the French Intervention . French imperial forces took Oaxaca city, which was defended by Díaz, landing him in prison. The capital was later recaptured by the liberals under Carlos Oronoz, but soon after Juárez took back the presidency, Díaz declared rebellion against him from Oaxaca in 1872 under

1335-467: Is also one of Mexico's most biologically diverse states, ranking in the top three, along with Chiapas and Veracruz , for numbers of reptiles, amphibians, mammals and plants. The name of the state comes from the name of its capital city, Oaxaca. This name comes from the Nahuatl word "Huaxyacac", which refers to a tree called a "guaje" ( Leucaena leucocephala ) found around the capital city. The name

1424-794: Is an important breeding area for sea turtles such as the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) , which is classified as endangered throughout its global range. Despite conservation efforts starting in the 1970s, the number of nesting sites and nesting turtles has dramatically decreased. Conservation efforts in the state are hampered by high marginalization, lack of economic alternatives, agricultural conflicts, change of land use (agricultural activities, fires), over-exploitation and pollution of natural water sources, inadequate forest management and illegal tree felling, unsustainable coastal tourist developments, climate change, limited local capacity, and limited local knowledge and valuation of natural resources. However, there are seven officially protected natural areas in

1513-440: Is an issue which needs to be addressed to remove the threats to the biosphere reserve. The state has a total population of about 3.5 million, with women outnumbering men by 150,000 and about 60% of the population under the age of 30. It is ranked tenth in population in the country. Fifty three percent of the population lives in rural areas. Most of the state's population growth took place between 1980 and 1990. Life expectancy

1602-409: Is arable. Spanish officials and merchants tried to take indigenous privileges due to their social status, but this was resisted. While some of this was violent, the dominant response was to resort to the administrative-judicial system or yield. Violence was reserved for the worst of situations. One native product to reach economic importance during the colonial period was the cochineal insect, used for

1691-446: Is considered an aftershock . On September 8, an 8.1 magnitude quake struck off of the southern Pacific coast, near Chiapas state. Mexico City , on September 19, then endured a 7.1 magnitude quake, which also marked the 32nd anniversary of the devastating 1985 earthquake , in which more than 10,000 people were killed. On June 23, 2020, a preliminary 7.4 magnitude earthquake struck the region, triggering tsunami warnings for parts of

1780-494: Is difficult to overstate Juárez's meaning to the state. He was born on March 21, 1806, in the village of San Pablo Guelatao and was full-blooded Zapotec. He studied to be a priest, then a lawyer. In 1847, Juárez became governor of Oaxaca, but still faced stern opposition from conservatives such as Lope San Germán. With the success of the Plan de Ayutla , Juárez became governor again, and worked to remove privileges and properties from

1869-702: Is in the valley of the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán-Quiotepec. The six rivers which flow through the reserve are the Tomellín, Chiquito, Las Vueltas, Salado, Zapotitán and Río Grande of the Papaloapan watershed, which finally flow into the Gulf of Mexico . On account of wide variation in topography and annual rainfall, the micro-climatic conditions in the reserve has created a biosphere reserve, which is very rich in flora and fauna. The rich biodiversity of

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1958-468: Is known for its small figures called "pretty women" or "baby face." Between 1200 and 900 BCE, pottery was produced in the area. This pottery has been linked with similar work done in La Victoria, Guatemala . Other important settlements from the same period include Tierras Largas , San José Mogote and Guadalupe , whose ceramics show Olmec influence. The major native language family, Oto-Manguean ,

2047-495: Is the tenth most populated state with 4,132,148 inhabitants as of the 2020 Mexican census and the fifth largest by land area spanning 93,757.6 square kilometres (36,200.0 sq mi). Municipalities in Oaxaca have some administrative autonomy from the state according to the 115th article of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico . Every three years, citizens elect a municipal president (Spanish: presidente municipal ) by

2136-572: Is thought to have been spoken in northern Oaxaca around 4400 BCE and to have evolved into nine distinct branches by 1500 BCE. Historic events in Oaxaca as far back as the 12th century are described in pictographic codices painted by Zapotecs and Mixtecs in the beginning of the colonial period, but outside of the information that can be obtained through their study, little historical information from pre-colonial Oaxaca exists, and our knowledge of this period relies largely on archaeological remains. By 500 BCE, Oaxaca's central valleys were mostly inhabited by

2225-603: The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( Spanish : Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca ), is one of the 32 states that compose the Federative Entities of the United Mexican States . It is divided into 570 municipalities , of which 418 (almost three quarters) are governed by the system of usos y costumbres (customs and traditions) with recognized local forms of self-governance. Its capital city

2314-466: The Guilá Naquitz cave near the town of Mitla . This area was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010 in recognition of the "earliest known evidence of domesticated plants in the continent, while corn cob fragments from the same cave are said to be the earliest documented evidence for the domestication of maize." More finds of nomadic peoples date to about 5000 BCE, with some evidence of

2403-797: The Panamerican Highway and the construction of the Miguel Alemán Dam. From the 1980s to the present, there has been much development of the tourism industry in the state. This tourism, as well as the population growth of the capital, prompted the construction of the Oaxaca-Mexico City highway in 1994. Development of tourism has been strongest in the Central Valleys area surrounding the capital, with secondary developments in Huatulco and other locations along

2492-653: The Plan de Tuxtepec . Juárez died in office. Díaz obtained the presidency and did not relinquish it until the Mexican Revolution . During Díaz's rule, called the Porfiriato, a number of modernization efforts were undertaken in the state, such as public lighting, first with gas then with electricity, railroad lines, new agriculture techniques and the revitalization of commerce. Most of the benefits of these advances went to national and international corporations, and workers and indigenous farmers organized against

2581-593: The Spanish Conquest in 1521. Between 700 and 1300, the Mixtec were scattered among various dominions, including those of Achiutla , Tequixtepec-Chazumba , Apoala and Coixtlahuaca . The Zapotecs occupied a large region from Central Valleys region to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. No major city-state like Monte Albán arose again, with villages and city-states remaining small, between 1,000 and 3,000 people with

2670-496: The x represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative ( [ʃ] , the equivalent of English sh in "shop"), making "Oaxaca" pronounced as [waˈʃaka] . But during the 16th century the voiceless fricative sound evolved into a voiceless velar fricative ( [x] , like the ch in Scottish "loch"), and Oaxaca began to be pronounced [waˈxaka] . In present-day Spanish, Oaxaca is pronounced [waˈxaka] or [waˈhaka] ,

2759-434: The 2020 census is Oaxaca de Juárez , seat of the state capital, with 270,955 residents (6.55% of the state's total), while the smallest is Santa Magdalena Jicotlán with 81 residents, the least populated municipality in Mexico. The largest municipality by land area is Santa María Chimalapa which spans 4,547.10 km (1,755.65 sq mi), and the smallest is Natividad with 2.20 km (0.85 sq mi), also

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2848-523: The 3,111-meter (10,207 ft) high "Cerro de San Felipe" (San Felipe Mountain), part of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca which has metamorphic rock formations. It has a rich biodiversity of flora and fauna. There are pine and oak forests in the upper reaches of the mountain, while the lower reaches have scrub oaks, and tropical deciduous forest in the canyons. Most of the forest is secondary growth, having been previously forested. Huatulco National Park , also known as Bahias de Huatulco National Park – Huatulco,

2937-835: The Aztec began to take control of trade routes in the area and part of the Pacific Coast. By this time, the Zapotec were led by Cosijoeza with the government in Zaachila in the latter 15th century. Under Ahuitzotl , the Aztecs temporarily pushed the Zapotecs into Tehuantepec and established a permanent military base at Huaxyacac (Oaxaca city). The Aztecs were stopped only by the Spanish Conquest. The conquest changed most of

3026-611: The California Rural Legal Assistance in Fresno, California , before returning to Oregon to work at the Oregon Law Center. Oaxaca Oaxaca ( / w ə ˈ h æ k ə / wə- HAK -ə , also US : / w ɑː ˈ h ɑː k ɑː / wah- HAH -kah ; Spanish: [waˈxaka] , from Classical Nahuatl : Huāxyacac [waːʃˈjakak] ), officially

3115-513: The Central Valleys between Etla and Miahuatlán , which contains the city of Oaxaca. Smaller populated valleys include Nochixtlan, Nejapa, Cuicatlan and Tuxtepec. Small mesas contain population centers such as Putla , Juxtlahuaca , Tamazulapan , Zacatepec , Tlaxiaco and Huajuapan . The largest canyons in the state are those in the Cuicatlán area and include the Cortés, Galicia and María in

3204-458: The Church and landed classes. The Constitution of 1857 was ratified in Oaxaca city, and Juárez left the governor's position to become President of Mexico . He was president during one of Mexico's most turbulent times, fighting invading French forces and conservatives. As a liberal, he imposed many of the reforms that remain today, including those in education and separation of church and state. He

3293-568: The Morales case. After his release, but while waiting for the charges to be dropped, he enrolled at Portland State University in Portland, Oregon . Morales briefly returned to Mexico before moving back to Portland, where he accepted a scholarship to the University of Portland . While imprisoned he had earned his GED and taken some college level classes, which along with the injustice led to

3382-718: The Sierra de Miahuatlán and the Sierra de la Garza. The Sierra Madre de Oaxaca enters the state from the Puebla and Veracruz borders in the Tuxtepec region , running northwest to southeast towards the Central Valleys region , then onto the Tehuantepec area . Local names for parts of this range include Sierra de Tamazulapan, Sierra de Nochixtlan, Sierra de Huautla, Sierra de Juárez, Sierra de Ixtlan and others. Average altitude

3471-496: The Spanish presidio of Villa Alta. This rebellion was put down by the Spanish, in alliance with about 2,000 Mixtecs and Aztecs. From this point, the Mixe retreated far into the mountains to isolate themselves, where they remain today. The first priest in the territory was Juan Diaz, who accompanied Francisco de Orozco and built the first church in what is now the city of Oaxaca. He was followed by Bartolome de Olmade and others who began

3560-659: The Spanish. Resistance to the new order was sporadic and confined to the Pacific coastal plain, the Zapotec Sierra, the Mixea region and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The Mixe put up the most resistance to intrusions on their lands. They not only resisted during the first decade or so of Spanish occupation, like other groups, but through the rest of the 16th century. The last major Mixe rebellion came in 1570, when they burned and looted Zapotec communities and threatened to destroy

3649-634: The Zapotec remained dominant in many parts of the Central Valleys and into the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Mixtec were pushing into Zapotec territory, taking Monte Alban. In areas they conquered, they became prolific builders, leaving behind numerous and still unexplored sites. But the conquest of the Central Valleys was never completed, with pressure coming from the Aztecs in Tenochtitlan in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Zapotecs and Mixtecs both allied themselves and fought among themselves as they tried to maintain their lands and valuable trade routes between

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3738-577: The Zapotecs, with the Mixtecs on the western side. These two groups were often in conflict during the pre-Hispanic period. Archeological evidence indicates that between 750 and 1521, there may have been population peaks of as high as 2.5 million. The Zapotecs were the earliest to gain dominance over the Central Valleys region. The first major dominion was centered in Monte Albán, which flourished from 500 BCE to AD 750. At its height, Monte Albán

3827-572: The area had gold . In addition, when Zapotec leaders heard about the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , they sent an offer of an alliance. Several captains and representatives were sent to the area to explore, looking for gold and routes to the Pacific to establish trade routes to Asian spice markets . The most prominent of Cortés's captains to arrive here were Gonzalo de Sandoval , Francisco de Orozco and Pedro de Alvarado . They overcame

3916-525: The area. At least 10 people were killed. The state is located in the southeastern portion of Mexico, bordered by the states of Puebla , Veracruz , Chiapas and Guerrero , with the Pacific Ocean to the south. It has a territory of 93,967 km (36,281 sq mi), accounting for less than 5% of Mexico's territory. Here several mountain chains come together, with the elevation varying from sea level to 3,759 m (12,333 ft) asl , averaging at 1,500 m (4,921 ft) asl. Oaxaca has one of

4005-416: The areas around Huajuapan de León, where Valerio Trujano defended the city against royalist forces until José María Morelos y Pavón came in with support to keep the area in rebel hands. After that point, insurgents had greater success in various parts of the state, but the capital remained in royalist hands until the end of the war. The state was initially a department after the war ended in 1821, but after

4094-550: The beginning of agriculture. By 2000 BCE, agriculture had been established in the Central Valleys region of the state, with sedentary villages. The diet developed around this time remained until the Spanish Conquest, consisting primarily of harvested corn, beans, chocolate, tomatoes, chili peppers, squash and gourds. Meat was generally hunted and included tepescuintle , turkey, deer, peccary , armadillo and iguana . The oldest known major settlements, such as Yanhuitlán and Laguna Zope , are also in this area. The latter settlement

4183-471: The coast line, out of the identified 100 marine species. Vegetation is dominated by the low forest growth of caducifolia in 80% area with the unusual feature of 50 ft (15.24 m) high trees. Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve, which encompasses the states of Puebla and Oaxaca in Mexico, was established as reserve in 1998 covering an area of 490,187 ha (1,211,280 acres), with an altitudinal range of 600 to 2,950 m (1,969 to 9,678 ft). It

4272-471: The coast. This development was threatened by violence associated with the 2006 uprising , which severely curtailed the number of incoming tourists for several years. On February 12, 2008, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake was recorded in Oaxaca. From the Mexican Revolution until the 2000s, the ruling PRI party controlled almost all Oaxacan politics, from the local to the state level. Challenges to

4361-738: The colonial period. Initially, the Spanish did not change native power structures and allowed nobles to keep their privileges as long as they were loyal to the Spanish crown. But all indigenous people were eventually lumped into one category as the Spanish halted warfare among the city-states and created the official category of "indio" (Indian). Settlers arriving from Spain brought with them domestic animals that had never been seen in Oaxaca: horses , cows , goats , sheep , chickens , mules and oxen . New crops such as sugar cane , vanilla and tobacco were introduced. Landholding remained mostly in indigenous hands, even though only 9% of Oaxaca's terrain

4450-568: The convergence of the Sierra Madre del Sur , the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca and the Sierra Atravesada into what is called the Oaxaca Complex (Complejo Oaxaqueño). The Sierra Madre del Sur runs along the coast with an average width of 150 km (93 mi) and a minimum height of 2,000 meters (6,562 ft) asl with peaks over 2,500 m (8,202 ft) asl. In various regions the chain is locally known by other names, such as

4539-1363: The drainage towards the Gulf is represented by the Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos Rivers and their tributaries such as the Grande and Salado Rivers. Three rivers account for most of the water headed for the Pacific: the Mixteco , Atoyac and Tehuantepec Rivers with their tributaries. Other important rivers and streams include the Tequisistlán, Santo Domingo, Putla, Minas, Puxmetacán-Trinidad, La Arena, Cajonos, Tenango, Tonto, Huamelula, San Antonio, Ayutla, Joquila, Copalita, Calapa, Colotepec, Aguacatenango-Jaltepec, Los Perros, El Corte, Espíritu Santo, Sarabia, Ostuta, Petapa and Petlapa. Major cities include Huajuapan de León , Juchitán de Zaragoza , Oaxaca (Oaxaca de Juárez) , Puerto Escondido , Salina Cruz , San Pedro Pochutla , San Juan Bautista Cuicatlán , San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec , Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán , Santa Lucía del Camino , Santa María Asunción Tlaxiaco , Santiago Pinotepa Nacional and Tehuantepec (Santo Domingo Tehuantepec) . Regions and districts of Oaxaca are: While

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4628-408: The dry season. In the driest areas mesquite , some cactus and grasslands can be found. There are also 58 species of aquatic plants. Wildlife includes a wide variety of birds, small to medium-sized mammals and some larger ones such as deer and wildcats, reptiles and amphibians. Off the coast there are fish and shellfish, as well as dolphins and whales which pass by during their migrations. The state

4717-517: The effect of dividing the state into small secluded communities, which have developed independently over time. There are 16 ethno linguistic groups recognized by the Instituto Nacional Indigenista who maintain their individual languages, customs and traditions well into the colonial period and to some extent to the present day. However, some studies put the number of cultures in the state as high as 4,000. This makes Oaxaca

4806-538: The fall of emperor Agustín de Iturbide , it became a state in 1824, with Jose Maria Murguia as its first governor. During the 19th century, Oaxaca and the rest of Mexico was split between liberal (federalist) and conservative (centralist) factions. The political and military struggles between the factions resulted in wars and intrigues. Vicente Guerrero , a liberal, was executed by firing squad in Cuilapam in 1831. Liberal Manuel Gomez Pedraza became governor in 1832 but

4895-476: The government of this area remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. When representatives of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla came to meet with them, they were hanged and their heads left out in view. Some early rebel groups emerged in the state, such as those led by Felipe Tinoco and Catarino Palacios, but they were also eventually executed. After 1812, insurgents began to have some success in the state, especially in

4984-491: The high central plains of Mexico and Central America. The first Aztecs arrived in the Oaxaca area in 1250, but true expansion into the region began in the 15th century. In 1457, Moctezuma I invaded the Tlaxiaco and Coixtlahuaca areas, gaining control, demanding tribute and establishing military outposts. These were Mixtec lands at first, pushing these people even further into Zapotec territory. Under Axayacatl and Tizoc ,

5073-670: The latter pronunciation used mostly in dialects of southern Mexico, the Caribbean, much of Central America, some places in South America, and the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain, where [x] has become a voiceless glottal fricative ( [h] ). Most of what is known about prehistoric Oaxaca comes from work in the Central Valleys region. Evidence of human habitation dating to about 11,000 years BCE has been found in

5162-470: The local level. Despite Spanish domination, the indigenous peoples of Oaxaca have maintained much of their culture and identity, more so than most other places in Mexico. Part of this is due to the geography of the land, making many communities isolated. By 1810, the city of Oaxaca had 18,000 inhabitants, most of whom were mestizos or mixed indigenous/European. During the Mexican War of Independence

5251-791: The main Aztec military stronghold only four months after the fall of Tenochtitlan. Their reports about the area prompted Cortés to seek the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca from the Spanish Crown . The valley Zapotecs, the Mixtecs of the Upper Mixteca, the Mazatecas and the Cuicatecas, for the most part, chose not to fight the newcomers, instead negotiating to keep most of the old hierarchy but with ultimate authority to

5340-470: The maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. Since 1984, they have had the power to collect property taxes and user fees , although more funds are obtained from the state and federal governments than from their own income. The largest municipality by population as of

5429-424: The making of dyes for textiles. This product was exported to Europe, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. The use of this insect faded in the 19th century with the discovery of cheaper dyes including synthetic colorants . For much of the colonial period, the state (then an intendencia or province) was relatively isolated with few roads and other forms of communication. Most politics and social issues were on

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5518-557: The most ethnically complex of Mexico's 31 states. Municipalities of Oaxaca Oaxaca is a state in Southern Mexico that is divided into 570 municipalities , more than any other state in Mexico. According to Article 113 of the state's constitution, the municipalities are grouped into 30 judicial and tax districts to facilitate the distribution of the state's revenues. It is the only state in Mexico with this particular judicial and tax district organization. Oaxaca

5607-430: The most rugged terrains in Mexico, with mountain ranges that abruptly fall into the sea. Between these mountains are mostly narrow valleys, canyons and ravines. Major elevations in the state include Zempoaltepetl (3,396 m or 11,142 ft asl), El Espinazo del Diablo, Nindú Naxinda Yucunino and Cerro Encantado. Oaxaca has 533 km (331 mi) of coastline with nine major bays. The mountains are mostly formed by

5696-417: The municipality of Tlaxiaco. There are a very large number of small canyons as well as ravines and arroyos of all sizes. The mountainous terrain allows for no navigable rivers; instead, there are a large number of smaller ones, which often change name from area to area. The continental divide passes through the state, meaning that there is drainage towards both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Most of

5785-474: The park consists of dry land. The park has 10 different types of vegetation: "selva espinosa", swampland, deciduous , sub-tropical broadleaf, mangrove , savannah , "bosque de galleria", "tular", palm trees, and coastal dunes. 246 species of flowers and 189 species of animals have been documented so far in the park. Birds such as storks , herons , wild ducks, blue-winged teals , pelicans , and spoonbills can be found here. Three species of turtles also visit

5874-452: The park to lay their eggs. Benito Juárez National Park is located 5 km (3.1 mi) to the north of Oaxaca within the municipal limits of San Felipe del Agua and Donaji, Oaxaca, and San Andres Huayapan of the central district. It was designated as a national park under a presidential decree, in 1937. The topography of the park has an elevation range varying from 1,650 to 3,050 metres (5,413 to 10,007 feet) above sea level . The climate

5963-513: The place names in parts of Oaxaca from their Nahuatl names. In 1486 the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca. This was the major Aztec military base charged with the enforcement of tribute collection and control of trade routes. Aztec rule in Oaxaca lasted only a little more than 30 years. Very soon after the fall of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), Spaniards arrived in Oaxaca. Moctezuma II had informed Hernando Cortes that

6052-414: The preserve consists of 910 plant genus, 2,700 vascular species, 102 species of mammals, 356 species of birds which includes the endangered Green Macaw ( Ara militaris ), and 53 species of reptiles. However, the reserve is faced with threats from poaching, deforestation, overgrazing, and trash scattered on the highways and secondary roads that pass close and through the reserve. Inadequate patrolling staff

6141-409: The previous leaders, especially Venustiano Carranza, and held various portions of the state until 1920. At the end of the Revolution, a new state constitution was written and accepted in 1922. A series of major disasters occurred in Oaxaca from the 1920s to the 1940s. In 1928, a series of earthquakes destroyed many of the buildings in the capital. A much larger earthquake in 1931 was the largest in

6230-455: The regime. After the Mexican Revolution broke out, Díaz was soon ousted and the rest of the war was among the various factions that had power in different parts of the country. Various leaders such as Francisco I. Madero , Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza came to the state during this time, but the most important force in the area was the Liberation Army of the South under Emiliano Zapata . This army allied with and fought against

6319-478: The rule were sporadic and included the student movements of the 1970s, which did bring down the state government. Teachers' strikes were frequent thereafter, culminating in the 2006 uprising in Oaxaca city , which brought in groups protesting the heavy marginalization of the poor. The PRI lost its 80-year hold on the state government in 2010 with the election of the PAN gubernatorial candidate Gabino Cué Monteagudo . This has led to speculation of major changes for

6408-595: The school offering him a full-ride scholarship to the Catholic university. He graduated in May 1996 from the school with a bachelor's degree in social work and a minor in political science. The legal injustice to Morales led the Oregon Supreme Court to adopt changes in the way language issues are dealt with to avoid future problems. Morales would work in Oregon briefly before returning to Mexico. He later worked for

6497-407: The state and there are several species of 'giant' stick insects indigenous to the region (such as Bacteria horni which has a body length of up to 22 cm). The most important ocean creatures commercially are shrimp, tuna, bonito, huachinango and mojarra . Sea turtles used to be exploited for both their meat and eggs but this was stopped by the federal government in the 1990s. The coast of Oaxaca

6586-522: The state from the Mayan lands of Chiapas, Yucatán , and Guatemala . The central and northwest of the state is part of the cultures of the Valley of Mexico , with historical influence seen from ancient cities such as Teotihuacan , Tula , and Tenochtitlan . The main reason that indigenous languages and cultures have been able to survive here is the rugged terrain, which isolate communities. This also has

6675-473: The state is over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) above sea level , average temperature is about 18 °C (64.4 °F), except near the coast. The coastline along with the regions of Yautepec, Putla, parts of Huahuapan and Silacayoapan are hot and relatively dry. Hot and humid climates predominate in Villa Alta, and the Central Valleys area and all others over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) above sea level have

6764-430: The state is within the tropical latitudes, its climate varies with altitude. There are three principal climate regions in the state. The first is the hot and subtropical lands. This accounts for about 30% of the state. The next is the semi hot and semi humid regions which account for about 18%, and temperate and semi humid at about 16%. All of these climates experience a rainy season in the summer and early fall. As most of

6853-604: The state's history, devastating a number of cities along the coast. The 1930s brought the Great Depression , which along with the disasters, prompted wide-scale migration to Mexico City. In 1944, torrential rains caused extensive flooding in the Tuxtepec region, resulting in hundreds of deaths. In the 1940s and 1950s, new infrastructure projects were begun. These included the Izúcar-Tehuantepec section of

6942-467: The state's rugged and isolating terrain. Most live in the Central Valleys region, which is also an economically important area for tourism, with people attracted for its archeological sites such as Monte Albán , and Mitla , and its various native cultures and crafts. Another important tourist area is the coast, which has the major resort of Huatulco and sandy beaches of Puerto Escondido , Puerto Ángel , Zipolite , Bahia de Tembo , and Mazunte . Oaxaca

7031-511: The state. In 2017, a series of earthquakes brought death and destruction to parts of Mexico, including Oaxaca. According to the US Geological Survey , on September 23, 2017, a magnitude 6.1 earthquake shook Matías Romero , about 275 miles southeast of Mexico City . The epicenter was about 12 miles from Matías Romero and approximately halfway between the two even more violent earthquakes in Mexico earlier that month, of which it

7120-589: The state: Benito Juárez National Park at 3,272 ha (8,090 acres), Huatulco National Park at 11,845 ha (29,270 acres), Lagunas de Chacahua National Park at 14,920 ha (36,900 acres), Playa de Escobilla Sanctuary at 30 ha (74 acres), Playa de la Bahía de Chacahua Sanctuary at 31 ha (77 acres), Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve at 490,678 ha (1,212,490 acres) and Yagul Natural Monument at 1,076 ha (2,660 acres). Lagunas de Chacahua National Park , created in 1937, lies about 54 km (34 mi) west of Puerto Escondido , near

7209-699: The superficial conversion of a number of indigenous people, including the baptism of Zapotec leader Cosijoeza. In 1528, the Dominicans settled in the city of Oaxaca, forming the Bishopric of Oaxaca in 1535, and began to spread out from there, eventually reaching Tehuantepec and the coast. Other orders followed, such as the Jesuits in 1596, the Mercedarians in 1601, and others in the 17th and 18th centuries. Spanish conquest and subsequent colonization had

7298-532: The world for endangered species. The state has important ecological zones such as the Selva Zoque in the northeast. Vegetation varies from those adapted to hot and arid conditions such as cacti , to evergreen tropical forest on the coasts. Forests in the higher elevations consist of conifers , broadleafed trees and a mixture of the two. In the lower elevations by the coast there are evergreen and deciduous rainforest , with those dropping leaves doing so in

7387-499: Was home to 25,000 people and the capital city of the Zapotec nation. It remained a secondary center of power for the Zapotecs until the Mixtecs overran it in 1325. The site has several notable features, including the Danzantes, a set of stone reliefs, and the finding of fine quality ceramics. Starting from AD 750 previous large urban centers such as Monte Alban fell across the Oaxaca area and smaller dominions grew and evolved until

7476-824: Was initially declared a protected area and later decreed as a National Park on July 24, 1998. Located in the Santa Maria Huatulco town, to the west of Cruz Huatulco, it extends to an area of 11,890 hectares (29,400 acres). In the low lands of the park, there 9,000 species of plant (about 50% of the species are reported throughout the country) in the forest and mangroves in the coastal belt. Fauna species have been identified as 264, which includes armadillos and white-tailed deer . Bird species are counted at 701, which include hummingbirds , pelicans and hawks . The amphibian and reptile species are counted to be 470, which include Black Iguana , salamanders and snakes. Dolphins , whales and turtles are sighted species off

7565-495: Was not his native language. He maintained his innocence and several jurors later had second thoughts about the conviction and began advocating that he be released from prison. Morales repeatedly appealed after the conviction, but these appeals were denied, with future Oregon Supreme Court justice Virginia Linder opposing the appeals for the state of Oregon. However, the lack of an appropriate interpreter and other deficiencies in his trial led to his conviction being overturned when it

7654-461: Was opposed by General Estaban Moctezuma. He and commandant Luis Quintanar persecuted liberals in the state, including Benito Juárez . The constant warfare had a detrimental effect on the state's economy and those in the Tehuantepec area supported a separatist movement, which partially succeeded in the 1850s. Two Oaxacans, Juárez and Porfirio Díaz , were prominent players in the Reform War . It

7743-403: Was originally applied to the Valley of Oaxaca by Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs and passed on to the Spanish during the conquest of the Oaxaca region. The modern state was created in 1824, and the state seal was designed by Alfredo Canseco Feraud and approved by the government of Eduardo Vasconcelos. "Huaxyacac" [waːʃ.ˈja.kak] was transliterated as "Oaxaca" using Medieval Spanish orthography, in which

7832-401: Was released from prison, and all charges were dropped in May. Oregon governor Neil Goldschmidt had offered a conditional pardon for Morales after the conviction was overturned in case Oregon Attorney General Dave Frohnmayer appealed the decision that overturned the conviction. In 1995, the state of Oregon passed a law that requires testing and certification of court interpreters as a result of

7921-409: Was shown that a different person was responsible for the murder. While in prison he learned English and hoped to become a lawyer. The reinvestigation drew intense media attention locally and nationally. Paul De Muniz , who became Oregon Supreme Court Chief Justice in 2001 and retired in 2013, was Morales’ primary defense attorney on the successful appeal. On January 9, 1991, Santiago Ventura Morales

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