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64-620: Sarobetsu-genya ( サロベツ原野 ) , derived from the Ainu sar (marsh) and pet (river), is a coastal plain and low-lying moor in northwestern Hokkaidō , Japan . With an area of approximately 20,000 ha or 200 km (77 sq mi), it forms part of the Rishiri-Rebun-Sarobetsu National Park , and its wetlands are a Ramsar Site . This Hokkaidō location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ainu language Until

128-704: A decision to recognize Ainu as an indigenous language in June 2008. The Japanese government approved and passed a bill officially recognising the indigeneity of the Ainu people in 2019. On 12 July 2020, the Japanese government opened the National Ainu Museum in Shiraoi , Hokkaido . It forms one of three institutions named Upopoy (which means 'singing in a large group' in the Ainu language) alongside

192-544: A final [j] sound can be moved to the next syllable in enchainement, sometimes with a gemination: e.g., non ne ho mai avuti ('I've never had any of them') is broken into syllables as [non.neˈɔ.ma.jaˈvuːti] and io ci vado e lei anche ('I go there and she does as well') is realized as [jo.tʃiˈvaːdo.e.lɛjˈjaŋ.ke] . A related phenomenon, called consonant mutation, is found in the Celtic languages like Irish and Welsh, whereby unwritten (but historical) final consonants affect

256-525: A glottal stop be inserted between a word and a following, putatively vowel-initial word. Yet such words are perceived to begin with a vowel in German but a glottal stop in Arabic. The reason for this has to do with other properties of the two languages. For example, a glottal stop does not occur in other situations in German, e.g. before a consonant or at the end of word. On the other hand, in Arabic, not only does

320-499: A glottal stop is inserted – indicates whether the word should be considered to have a null onset. For example, many Romance languages such as Spanish never insert such a glottal stop, while English does so only some of the time, depending on factors such as conversation speed; in both cases, this suggests that the words in question are truly vowel-initial. But there are exceptions here, too. For example, standard German (excluding many southern accents) and Arabic both require that

384-435: A glottal stop occur in such situations (e.g. Classical /saʔala/ "he asked", /raʔj/ "opinion", /dˤawʔ/ "light"), but it occurs in alternations that are clearly indicative of its phonemic status (cf. Classical /kaːtib/ "writer" vs. /mak tuːb/ "written", /ʔaːkil/ "eater" vs. /maʔkuːl/ "eaten"). In other words, while the glottal stop is predictable in German (inserted only if a stressed syllable would otherwise begin with

448-439: A linear one, between the syllable constituents. One hierarchical model groups the syllable nucleus and coda into an intermediate level, the rime . The hierarchical model accounts for the role that the nucleus + coda constituent plays in verse (i.e., rhyming words such as cat and bat are formed by matching both the nucleus and coda, or the entire rime), and for the distinction between heavy and light syllables , which plays

512-455: A medial contrast between /i/ and /j/ , where the /i/ functions phonologically as a glide rather than as part of the nucleus. In addition, many reconstructions of both Old and Middle Chinese include complex medials such as /rj/ , /ji/ , /jw/ and /jwi/ . The medial groups phonologically with the rime rather than the onset, and the combination of medial and rime is collectively known as the final . Some linguists, especially when discussing

576-459: A phonemic glottal stop (the sound in the middle of English uh-oh or, in some dialects, the double T in button , represented in the IPA as /ʔ/ ). In English, a word that begins with a vowel may be pronounced with an epenthetic glottal stop when following a pause, though the glottal stop may not be a phoneme in the language. Few languages make a phonemic distinction between a word beginning with

640-551: A role in phonological processes such as, for example, sound change in Old English scipu and wordu , where in a process called high vowel deletion (HVD), the nominative/accusative plural of single light-syllable roots (like "*scip-") got a "u" ending in OE, whereas heavy syllable roots (like "*word-") would not, giving "scip-u" but "word-∅". In some traditional descriptions of certain languages such as Cree and Ojibwe ,

704-472: A significant number forbid any heavy syllable. Some languages strive for constant syllable weight; for example, in stressed, non-final syllables in Italian , short vowels co-occur with closed syllables while long vowels co-occur with open syllables, so that all such syllables are heavy (not light or superheavy). The difference between heavy and light frequently determines which syllables receive stress – this

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768-444: A single syllable (like English dog ) is called a monosyllable (and is said to be monosyllabic ). Similar terms include disyllable (and disyllabic ; also bisyllable and bisyllabic ) for a word of two syllables; trisyllable (and trisyllabic ) for a word of three syllables; and polysyllable (and polysyllabic ), which may refer either to a word of more than three syllables or to any word of more than one syllable. Syllable

832-498: A syllabic nucleus. A few languages have so-called syllabic fricatives , also known as fricative vowels , at the phonemic level. (In the context of Chinese phonology , the related but non-synonymous term apical vowel is commonly used.) Mandarin Chinese is famous for having such sounds in at least some of its dialects, for example the pinyin syllables sī shī rī , usually pronounced [sź̩ ʂʐ̩́ ʐʐ̩́] , respectively. Though, like

896-499: A syllable break, for example in the word "understood" ⟨ /ʌndərˈstʊd/ ⟩ (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a full stop, e.g. ⟨ /ʌn.dər.ˈstʊd/ ⟩). When a word space comes in the middle of a syllable (that is, when a syllable spans words), a tie bar ⟨ ‿ ⟩ can be used for liaison , as in the French combination les amis ⟨ /lɛ.z‿a.mi/ ⟩. The liaison tie

960-479: A syllable in the stem. This will typically fall on the first syllable if that is long (has a final consonant or a diphthong), and will otherwise fall on the second syllable, though there are exceptions to this generalization. Typologically , Ainu is similar in word order (and some aspects of phonology) to Japanese . Ainu has a canonical word order of subject, object, verb , and uses postpositions rather than prepositions . Nouns can cluster to modify one another;

1024-440: A syllable-final /r/ , which is not normally found, while /hʌ.ri/ gives a syllable-final short stressed vowel, which is also non-occurring. Arguments can be made in favour of one solution or the other: A general rule has been proposed that states that "Subject to certain conditions ..., consonants are syllabified with the more strongly stressed of two flanking syllables", while many other phonologists prefer to divide syllables with

1088-452: A third type of superheavy syllable , which consists of VVC syllables (with both a branching nucleus and rime) or VCC syllables (with a coda consisting of two or more consonants) or both. In moraic theory , heavy syllables are said to have two moras, while light syllables are said to have one and superheavy syllables are said to have three. Japanese phonology is generally described this way. Many languages forbid superheavy syllables, while

1152-626: A vowel and a word beginning with a glottal stop followed by a vowel, since the distinction will generally only be audible following another word. However, Maltese and some Polynesian languages do make such a distinction, as in Hawaiian /ahi/ ('fire') and /ʔahi / ← /kahi/ ('tuna') and Maltese /∅/ ← Arabic /h/ and Maltese /k~ʔ/ ← Arabic /q/ . Ashkenazi and Sephardi Hebrew may commonly ignore א , ה and ע , and Arabic forbid empty onsets. The names Israel , Abel , Abraham , Omar , Abdullah , and Iraq appear not to have onsets in

1216-542: A vowel), the same sound is a regular consonantal phoneme in Arabic. The status of this consonant in the respective writing systems corresponds to this difference: there is no reflex of the glottal stop in German orthography , but there is a letter in the Arabic alphabet ( Hamza ( ء )). The writing system of a language may not correspond with the phonological analysis of the language in terms of its handling of (potentially) null onsets. For example, in some languages written in

1280-479: A whole number of syllables: for example, the word ignite is made of two syllables: ig and nite . Syllabic writing began several hundred years before the first letters . The earliest recorded syllables are on tablets written around 2800 BC in the Sumerian city of Ur . This shift from pictograms to syllables has been called "the most important advance in the history of writing ". A word that consists of

1344-457: A word-final consonant to a vowel beginning the word immediately following it forms a regular part of the phonetics of some languages, including Spanish, Hungarian, and Turkish. Thus, in Spanish, the phrase los hombres ('the men') is pronounced [loˈsom.bɾes] , Hungarian az ember ('the human') as [ɒˈzɛm.bɛr] , and Turkish nefret ettim ('I hated it') as [nefˈɾe.tet.tim] . In Italian,

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1408-417: Is a syllabic consonant . In most Germanic languages , lax vowels can occur only in closed syllables. Therefore, these vowels are also called checked vowels , as opposed to the tense vowels that are called free vowels because they can occur even in open syllables. The notion of syllable is challenged by languages that allow long strings of obstruents without any intervening vowel or sonorant . By far

1472-449: Is a basic unit of organization within a sequence of speech sounds , such as within a word, typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel ) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants ). Syllables are often considered the phonological "building blocks" of words . They can influence the rhythm of a language, its prosody , its poetic metre and its stress patterns. Speech can usually be divided up into

1536-427: Is also used to join lexical words into phonological words , for example hot dog ⟨ /ˈhɒt‿dɒɡ/ ⟩. A Greek sigma, ⟨σ⟩ , is used as a wild card for 'syllable', and a dollar/peso sign, ⟨$ ⟩ , marks a syllable boundary where the usual fullstop might be misunderstood. For example, ⟨σσ⟩ is a pair of syllables, and ⟨V$ ⟩ is a syllable-final vowel. In

1600-424: Is an Anglo-Norman variation of Old French sillabe , from Latin syllaba , from Koine Greek συλλαβή syllabḗ ( Greek pronunciation: [sylːabɛ̌ː] ). συλλαβή means "the taken together", referring to letters that are taken together to make a single sound. συλλαβή is a verbal noun from the verb συλλαμβάνω syllambánō , a compound of the preposition σύν sýn "with" and

1664-512: Is either a closed syllable that ends in a consonant, or a syllable with a branching nucleus , i.e. a long vowel or diphthong . The name is a metaphor, based on the nucleus or coda having lines that branch in a tree diagram. In some languages, heavy syllables include both VV (branching nucleus) and VC (branching rime) syllables, contrasted with V, which is a light syllable . In other languages, only VV syllables are considered heavy, while both VC and V syllables are light. Some languages distinguish

1728-404: Is in fact mandatory for incorporating oblique nouns. Like incorporation, applicatives have grown less common in the modern language. Ainu has a closed class of plural verbs , and some of these are suppletive . Ainu has a system of verbal affixes (shown below) which mark agreement for person and case. The specific cases that are marked differ by person, with nominative–accusative marking for

1792-551: Is not, and sk- is possible but ks- is not. In Greek , however, both ks- and tl- are possible onsets, while contrarily in Classical Arabic no multiconsonant onsets are allowed at all. Some languages forbid null onsets . In these languages, words beginning in a vowel, like the English word at , are impossible. This is less strange than it may appear at first, as most such languages allow syllables to begin with

1856-482: Is the case in Latin and Arabic , for example. The system of poetic meter in many classical languages, such as Classical Greek , Classical Latin , Old Tamil and Sanskrit , is based on syllable weight rather than stress (so-called quantitative rhythm or quantitative meter ). Syllabification is the separation of a word into syllables, whether spoken or written. In most languages, the actually spoken syllables are

1920-421: Is used. One analysis would consider all vowel and consonant segments as syllable nuclei, another would consider only a small subset ( fricatives or sibilants ) as nuclei candidates, and another would simply deny the existence of syllables completely. However, when working with recordings rather than transcriptions, the syllables can be obvious in such languages, and native speakers have strong intuitions as to what

1984-419: Is usually the portion of a syllable from the first vowel to the end. For example, /æt/ is the rime of all of the words at , sat , and flat . However, the nucleus does not necessarily need to be a vowel in some languages, such as English. For instance, the rime of the second syllables of the words bottle and fiddle is just /l/ , a liquid consonant . Just as the rime branches into the nucleus and coda,

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2048-501: The Agency for Cultural Affairs , and there is a popular educational YouTube channel which teaches conversational Ainu. While these measures have been praised for taking steps to protect the Ainu language and culture, the museum and related government efforts have been criticised for failing to acknowledge the history of Japanese discrimination against the Ainu people, and for the government's refusal to apologise for past misdeeds against

2112-520: The Arrernte language of central Australia may prohibit onsets altogether; if so, all syllables have the underlying shape VC(C). The difference between a syllable with a null onset and one beginning with a glottal stop is often purely a difference of phonological analysis, rather than the actual pronunciation of the syllable. In some cases, the pronunciation of a (putatively) vowel-initial word when following another word – particularly, whether or not

2176-545: The Latin alphabet , an initial glottal stop is left unwritten (see the German example); on the other hand, some languages written using non-Latin alphabets such as abjads and abugidas have a special zero consonant to represent a null onset. As an example, in Hangul , the alphabet of the Korean language , a null onset is represented with ㅇ at the left or top section of a grapheme , as in 역 "station", pronounced yeok , where

2240-428: The diphthong yeo is the nucleus and k is the coda. [REDACTED] The nucleus is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable. Generally, every syllable requires a nucleus (sometimes called the peak ), and the minimal syllable consists only of a nucleus, as in the English words "eye" or "owe". The syllable nucleus is usually a vowel, in the form of a monophthong , diphthong , or triphthong , but sometimes

2304-518: The 20th century, the Ainu languages – Hokkaido Ainu and the now-extinct Kuril Ainu and Sakhalin Ainu – were spoken throughout Hokkaido, the southern half of the island of Sakhalin and by small numbers of people in the Kuril Islands . Due to the colonization policy employed by the Japanese government, the number of Hokkaido Ainu speakers decreased through the 20th century, and it is now moribund . A very low number of elderly people still speak

2368-447: The Ainu language, 0.7% of participants answered that they "would be able to have a conversation" in Ainu, 3.4% answered that they "would be able to converse a little", 44.6% answered they "could barely converse at all", and 48.1% answered that they "would not be able to converse at all". In a subsequent survey of 472 respondents in 2023, these figures had shifted to 0.8%, 8.9%, 19.3%, and 69.3% respectively. The Japanese government made

2432-559: The Ainu. Ainu syllables are (C)V(C); they have an obligatory vowel, and an optional syllable onset and coda consisting of one consonant. There are few consonant clusters . There are five vowels in Ainu: Obstruents /p t ts~tʃ k/ may be voiced [b d dz~dʒ ɡ] between vowels and after nasals. /t͡s/ can be heard as [ t͡ʃ ] in free variation among speakers. Both /ti/ and /tsi/ are realized as [t͡ʃi] , and /s/ becomes [ ʃ ] before /i/ and at

2496-569: The National Ainu Park and a memorial site on high ground on the east side of Lake Poroto (ポロト湖) where Ainu services are held. Its director, Masahiro Nomoto, says that "One of our main objectives is to preserve and revive the language, as this is one of the most threatened elements of Ainu culture ". Announcements on some bus routes in Hokkaido can since be heard in Ainu, efforts are being undertaken to archive Ainu speech recordings by

2560-408: The above definition. [REDACTED] In some theories of phonology, syllable structures are displayed as tree diagrams (similar to the trees found in some types of syntax). Not all phonologists agree that syllables have internal structure; in fact, some phonologists doubt the existence of the syllable as a theoretical entity. There are many arguments for a hierarchical relationship, rather than

2624-476: The basis of syllabification in writing too. Due to the very weak correspondence between sounds and letters in the spelling of modern English, for example, written syllabification in English has to be based mostly on etymological i.e. morphological instead of phonetic principles. English written syllables therefore do not correspond to the actually spoken syllables of the living language. Phonotactic rules determine which sounds are allowed or disallowed in each part of

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2688-435: The beginning of a syllable, occurring before the nucleus . Most syllables have an onset. Syllables without an onset may be said to have an empty or zero onset – that is, nothing where the onset would be. Some languages restrict onsets to be only a single consonant, while others allow multiconsonant onsets according to various rules. For example, in English, onsets such as pr- , pl- and tr- are possible but tl-

2752-477: The consonant or consonants attached to the following syllable wherever possible. However, an alternative that has received some support is to treat an intervocalic consonant as ambisyllabic , i.e. belonging both to the preceding and to the following syllable: /hʌṛi/ . This is discussed in more detail in English phonology § Phonotactics . The onset (also known as anlaut ) is the consonant sound or sounds at

2816-403: The end of syllables. /h/ is heard as [ ɸ ] when occurring before /u/ . /n/ is heard as [ ŋ ] when before /k/ , as well as in final position. A glottal stop [ ʔ ] is often inserted at the beginning of words, before an accented vowel, but is non-phonemic. The Ainu language also has a pitch accent system. Generally, words containing affixes have a high pitch on

2880-644: The first person singular, tripartite marking for the first person plural and indefinite (or 'fourth') person, and direct or 'neutral' marking for the second singular and plural, and third persons (i.e. the affixes do not differ by case). クイタㇰ。 Ku-itak. 1SG -speak クイタㇰ。 Ku-itak. 1SG-speak 'I spoke.' エイタㇰ。 E-itak. 2SG -speak エイタㇰ。 E-itak. 2SG-speak You (SG) spoke.' イタㇰ。 Itak. speak イタㇰ。 Itak. speak 'He spoke.' クアニ Kuani I クイタㇰ。 ku-itak. 1SG -speak クアニ クイタㇰ。 Kuani ku-itak. I 1SG-speak 'I spoke.' Syllable A syllable

2944-403: The first syllable, but in the original Hebrew and Arabic forms they actually begin with various consonants: the semivowel / j / in יִשְׂרָאֵל yisra'él , the glottal fricative in / h / הֶבֶל heḇel , the glottal stop / ʔ / in אַבְרָהָם 'aḇrāhām , or the pharyngeal fricative / ʕ / in عُمَر ʿumar , عَبْدُ ٱللّٰ ʿabdu llāh , and عِرَاق ʿirāq . Conversely,

3008-629: The head comes at the end. Verbs, which are inherently either transitive or intransitive, accept various derivational affixes . Ainu does not have grammatical gender . Plurals are indicated by a suffix. Classical Ainu, the language of the yukar , is polysynthetic , with incorporation of nouns and adverbs; this is greatly reduced in the modern colloquial language. Applicatives may be used in Ainu to place nouns in dative , instrumental , comitative , locative , allative , or ablative roles. Besides freestanding nouns, these roles may be assigned to incorporated nouns, and such use of applicatives

3072-454: The initial consonant of the following word. There can be disagreement about the location of some divisions between syllables in spoken language. The problems of dealing with such cases have been most commonly discussed with relation to English. In the case of a word such as hurry , the division may be /hʌr.i/ or /hʌ.ri/ , neither of which seems a satisfactory analysis for a non-rhotic accent such as RP (British English): /hʌr.i/ results in

3136-496: The language fluently, though attempts are being made to revive it. The term "Ainu" comes from the endonym of the Ainu people , aynu ( アイヌ ), meaning "people" or "human". According to UNESCO , Ainu is an endangered language with few native speakers. Although there are estimated to be at least 30,000 Ainu people in Japan, there is a low rate of self-identification as Ainu among people with Ainu ethnic roots. Knowledge of

3200-523: The language was already endangered by the 1960s and has continued to decline since. In 2011 , just 304 people within Japan were reported to understand the Ainu language to some extent. As of 2016 , Ethnologue listed Ainu as "nearly extinct" (class 8b). In 2017, 671 people participated in a Hokkaido government survey on the lives of Ainu people. Participants were believed to be descendants of Ainu people or those who joined Ainu families by marriage or adoption. In response to survey questions about fluency in

3264-644: The medial. These four segments are grouped into two slightly different components: In many languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , such as Chinese , the syllable structure is expanded to include an additional, optional medial segment located between the onset (often termed the initial in this context) and the rime. The medial is normally a semivowel , but reconstructions of Old Chinese generally include liquid medials ( /r/ in modern reconstructions, /l/ in older versions), and many reconstructions of Middle Chinese include

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3328-402: The modern Chinese varieties, use the terms "final" and "rime" interchangeably. In historical Chinese phonology , however, the distinction between "final" (including the medial) and "rime" (not including the medial) is important in understanding the rime dictionaries and rime tables that form the primary sources for Middle Chinese , and as a result most authors distinguish the two according to

3392-671: The most common syllabic consonants are sonorants like [l] , [r] , [m] , [n] or [ŋ] , as in English bott le , ch ur ch (in rhotic accents), rhyth m , butt on and lock ' n key . However, English allows syllabic obstruents in a few para-verbal onomatopoeic utterances such as shh (used to command silence) and psst (used to attract attention). All of these have been analyzed as phonemically syllabic. Obstruent-only syllables also occur phonetically in some prosodic situations when unstressed vowels elide between obstruents, as in potato [pʰˈteɪɾəʊ] and today [tʰˈdeɪ] , which do not change in their number of syllables despite losing

3456-404: The nucleus and coda may each branch into multiple phonemes . The limit for the number of phonemes which may be contained in each varies by language. For example, Japanese and most Sino-Tibetan languages do not have consonant clusters at the beginning or end of syllables, whereas many Eastern European languages can have more than two consonants at the beginning or end of the syllable. In English,

3520-429: The nucleus of rhotic English church , there is debate over whether these nuclei are consonants or vowels. Languages of the northwest coast of North America, including Salishan , Wakashan and Chinookan languages, allow stop consonants and voiceless fricatives as syllables at the phonemic level, in even the most careful enunciation. An example is Chinook [ɬtʰpʰt͡ʃʰkʰtʰ] 'those two women are coming this way out of

3584-473: The nucleus, and the coda (literally 'tail') is the sound or sounds that follow the nucleus. They are sometimes collectively known as the shell . The term rime covers the nucleus plus coda. In the one-syllable English word cat , the nucleus is a (the sound that can be shouted or sung on its own), the onset c , the coda t , and the rime at . This syllable can be abstracted as a consonant-vowel-consonant syllable, abbreviated CVC . Languages vary greatly in

3648-411: The onset may have up to three consonants, and the coda four. Rime and rhyme are variants of the same word, but the rarer form rime is sometimes used to mean specifically syllable rime to differentiate it from the concept of poetic rhyme . This distinction is not made by some linguists and does not appear in most dictionaries. A heavy syllable is generally one with a branching rime , i.e. it

3712-426: The restrictions on the sounds making up the onset, nucleus and coda of a syllable, according to what is termed a language's phonotactics . Although every syllable has supra-segmental features, these are usually ignored if not semantically relevant, e.g. in tonal languages . In the syllable structure of Sinitic languages , the onset is replaced with an initial, and a semivowel or liquid forms another segment, called

3776-411: The syllable is considered left-branching, i.e. onset and nucleus group below a higher-level unit, called a "body" or "core". This contrasts with the coda. The rime or rhyme of a syllable consists of a nucleus and an optional coda . It is the part of the syllable used in most poetic rhymes , and the part that is lengthened or stressed when a person elongates or stresses a word in speech. The rime

3840-446: The syllable. English allows very complicated syllables; syllables may begin with up to three consonants (as in strength ), and occasionally end with as many as four (as in angsts , pronounced [æŋsts]). Many other languages are much more restricted; Japanese , for example, only allows /ɴ/ and a chroneme in a coda, and theoretically has no consonant clusters at all, as the onset is composed of at most one consonant. The linking of

3904-433: The typical theory of syllable structure, the general structure of a syllable (σ) consists of three segments. These segments are grouped into two components: The syllable is usually considered right-branching, i.e. nucleus and coda are grouped together as a "rime" and are only distinguished at the second level. The nucleus is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable. The onset is the sound or sounds occurring before

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3968-494: The verb λαμβάνω lambánō "take". The noun uses the root λαβ- , which appears in the aorist tense; the present tense stem λαμβάν- is formed by adding a nasal infix ⟨ μ ⟩ ⟨m⟩ before the β b and a suffix -αν -an at the end. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the fullstop ⟨ . ⟩ marks syllable breaks, as in

4032-496: The water'. Linguists have analyzed this situation in various ways, some arguing that such syllables have no nucleus at all and some arguing that the concept of "syllable" cannot clearly be applied at all to these languages. Other examples: In Bagemihl's survey of previous analyses, he finds that the Bella Coola word /t͡sʼktskʷt͡sʼ/ 'he arrived' would have been parsed into 0, 2, 3, 5, or 6 syllables depending on which analysis

4096-412: The word "astronomical" ⟨ /ˌæs.trə.ˈnɒm.ɪk.əl/ ⟩. In practice, however, IPA transcription is typically divided into words by spaces, and often these spaces are also understood to be syllable breaks. In addition, the stress mark ⟨ ˈ ⟩ is placed immediately before a stressed syllable, and when the stressed syllable is in the middle of a word, in practice, the stress mark also marks

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