131-489: The Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Railway (FCDFS) (Spanish: Ferrocarril Domingo Faustino Sarmiento ), named after the former Argentine president, statesman, educator, and author Domingo Faustino Sarmiento , is one of the six state-owned Argentine railway divisions formed after President Juan Perón 's nationalisation of the Argentine railway network in 1948. The six companies were managed by Ferrocarriles Argentinos which
262-646: A Provincial Past). In 1852, Rosas's regime was finally brought down. Sarmiento became involved in debates about the country's new constitution. In 1854, Sarmiento briefly visited Mendoza, just across the border from Chile in Western Argentina, but he was arrested and imprisoned. Upon his release, he went back to Chile. But in 1855 he put an end to what was now his "self-imposed" exile in Chile: he arrived in Buenos Aires, soon to become editor-in-chief of
393-717: A brief period of prosperity during the decade of 1920, the situation becomes critical with the 1929 crash and the economic depression. By 1945 the British and French companies were seriously affected by the World War II , beginning contacts with the Government of Argentina to sell their railway lines that still operated in the country. As a result, the railway assets were acquired by the State of Argentina between 1 November 1947 and 1 March 1948. President Juan Domingo Perón sign
524-627: A family of writers, orators, and clerics, Domingo Sarmiento placed a great value on education and learning. He opened a number of schools including the first school in Latin America for teachers in Santiago in 1842: La Escuela Normal Preceptores de Chile . He proceeded to open 18 more schools and had mostly female teachers from the United States come to Argentina to instruct graduates how to be effective when teaching. Sarmiento's belief
655-604: A group of aggressive children. Sarmiento's father took him to the Loreto Seminary in 1821, but for reasons unknown, Sarmiento did not enter the seminary, returning instead to San Juan with his father. In 1823, the Minister of State, Bernardino Rivadavia , announced that the six top pupils of each state would be selected to receive higher education in Buenos Aires. Sarmiento was at the top of the list in San Juan, but it
786-555: A higher potential for larger, high-magnitude earthquakes in the future. The mountain range is also a source of shallow intraplate earthquakes within the South American Plate. The largest such earthquake (as of 2024) struck Peru in 1947 and measured M s 7.5. In the Peruvian Andes, these earthquakes display normal ( 1946 ), strike-slip (1976), and reverse ( 1969 , 1983) mechanisms. The Amazonian Craton
917-566: A joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km (69.9 mi) long and over 1,250 m (4,101 ft) thick, and spanned a vertical distance of 5,150 m (16,896 ft). The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from 4,600 m (15,092 ft) to 3,200 m (10,499 ft) at glacial times. The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions, due to its extension, from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy, and wet Cape Horn passing through
1048-458: A loose federation with more autonomy for the individual provinces. Opinion of the Rivadavia government was divided between the two ideologies . For Unitarians like Sarmiento, Rivadavia's presidency was a positive experience. He set up a European-staffed university and supported a public education program for rural male children. He also supported theater and opera groups, publishing houses and
1179-554: A museum. These contributions were considered as civilizing influences by the Unitarians, but they upset the Federalist constituency. Common laborers had their salaries subjected to a government cap, and the gauchos were arrested by Rivadavia for vagrancy and forced to work on public projects, usually without pay. In 1827, the Unitarians were challenged by Federalist forces. After the resignation of Rivadavia, Manuel Dorrego
1310-594: A north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management. The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to pre-existing installations. Some of these constructions still exist today. Devastated by European diseases and by civil war ,
1441-416: A number of institutions to be opened including secondary schools, military schools and an all-girls school . While governor, he developed roads and infrastructure, built public buildings and hospitals, encouraged agriculture and allowed for mineral mining. He resumed his post as editor of El Zonda . In 1863, Sarmiento fought against the power of the caudillo of La Rioja and found himself in conflict with
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#17327717710111572-432: A primarily agricultural economy to one focused on cities and industry. Historian David Rock notes that, beyond putting an end to caudillismo, Sarmiento's main achievements in government concerned his promotion of education. As Rock reports, "between 1868 and 1874 educational subsidies from the central government to the provinces quadrupled." He established 800 educational and military institutions, and his improvements to
1703-656: A representative of the Peruvian government. He did, however, see pitfalls to liberty, pointing for example to the aftermath of the French Revolution , which he compared to Argentina's own May Revolution . He believed that liberty could turn into anarchy and thus civil war, which is what happened in France and in Argentina. Therefore, his use of the term "liberty" was more in reference to a laissez-faire approach to
1834-711: A series of bends or oroclines . The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward-concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point, the orientation of the Andes turns from northwest in Peru to south in Chile and Argentina . The Andean segments north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° counter-clockwise to 20° clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with
1965-634: A typical location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems, extensional zones, transpressional faults , subduction of mid-ocean ridges , and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations. The Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits, and some of their eastern fold and thrust belts act as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons . In
2096-536: A whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area . In the high Andes of Central Chile and Mendoza Province , rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation . In these regions, glaciers occur typically at higher altitudes than rock glaciers. The lowest active rock glaciers occur at 900 m a.s.l. in Aconcagua . Though precipitation increases with height, there are semiarid conditions in
2227-780: A zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of tectonic plate processes extending during the Mesozoic and Tertiary eras, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate as the Nazca Plate and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As
2358-458: Is a fundamental reference for Argentine education. In 1882, Sarmiento was successful in passing the sanction of Free Education allowing schools to be free, mandatory, and separate from that of religion. In May 1888, Sarmiento left Argentina for Paraguay. He was accompanied by his daughter, Ana, and his companion Aurelia Vélez. He died in Asunción on 11 September 1888, from a heart attack, and
2489-561: Is a result of the subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products, and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighboring volcanoes. Despite being
2620-528: Is a square, Plaza Sarmiento in Rosario, Argentina. One of Rodin 's last sculptures was that of Sarmiento which is now in Buenos Aires. Andes The Andes ( / ˈ æ n d iː z / AN -deez ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range ( Spanish : Cordillera de los Andes ; Quechua : Anti ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along
2751-551: Is actively underthrusted beneath the sub-Andes region of Peru, producing thrust faults. In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, thrust faulting occurs along the sub-Andes due in response to compression brought on by subduction, while in the high Andes, normal faulting occurs in response to gravitational forces. In the extreme south, a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate . The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism
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#17327717710112882-471: Is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times , the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered highly endangered , with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains. The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in
3013-551: Is still considered to be Latin America's teacher. In his time, he opened countless schools, created free public libraries, opened immigration, and worked towards a Union of Plate States. His impact was not only on the world of education, but also on Argentine political and social structure. His ideas are now revered as innovative, though at the time they were not widely accepted. He was a self-made man and believed in sociological and economic growth for Latin America, something that
3144-1590: Is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the Andean Community of Nations . La Paz , Bolivia 's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately 3,650 m (11,975 ft). Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto , extend up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft). Other cities in or near the Andes include Bariloche , Catamarca , Jujuy , Mendoza , Salta , San Juan , Tucumán , and Ushuaia in Argentina; Calama and Rancagua in Chile; Cochabamba , Oruro , Potosí , Sucre , Tarija , and Yacuiba in Bolivia; Arequipa , Cajamarca , Cusco , Huancayo , Huánuco , Huaraz , Juliaca , and Puno in Peru; Ambato , Cuenca , Ibarra , Latacunga , Loja , Riobamba , and Tulcán in Ecuador; Armenia , Cúcuta , Bucaramanga , Duitama , Ibagué , Ipiales , Manizales , Palmira , Pasto , Pereira , Popayán , Sogamoso , Tunja , and Villavicencio in Colombia; and Barquisimeto , La Grita , Mérida , San Cristóbal , Tovar, Trujillo , and Valera in Venezuela. The cities of Caracas , Valencia , and Maracay are in
3275-404: The 2010 Maule earthquake (M8.8), the 2015 Illapel earthquake (M8.2), and the 1960 Valdivia earthquake (M9.5), which as of 2024 was the strongest ever recorded on seismometers. The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of
3406-682: The Americas and Antarctica . The etymology of the word Andes has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti "east" as in Antisuyu (Quechua for "east region"), one of the four regions of the Inca Empire . The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel "rope" and is used as a descriptive name for several contiguous sections of
3537-456: The Andean cock-of-the-rock , while mixed-species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids are commonly seen—in contrast to several vocal but typically- cryptic species of wrens , tapaculos , and antpittas . A number of species such as the royal cinclodes and white-browed tit-spinetail are associated with Polylepis , and consequently also threatened . The Andes Mountains form
3668-651: The Boston - Cambridge area to be the source of much of his influence, writing in an Argentine newspaper that New England was "the cradle of the modern republic, the school for all of America." He described Boston as "The pioneer city of the modern world, the Zion of the ancient Puritans ... Europe contemplates in New England the power which in the future will supplant her." Not only did Sarmiento evolve political ideas, but also structural ones by transitioning Argentina from
3799-592: The Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were formerly thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates . The Andes are an orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire ,
3930-535: The Cenozoic . Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. Many high-magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in the region, such as
4061-694: The Tropical Andes , the Dry Andes , and the Wet Andes . The Andes are the highest mountain range which is outside of Asia . The range's highest peak, Argentina's Aconcagua , rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m (22,838 ft) above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to
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4192-601: The University of Michigan . A bust of him stood in the Modern Languages Building at the University of Michigan until multiple student protests prompted its removal. Students installed plaques and painted the bust red to represent the controversies surrounding his policies towards the indigenous people in Argentina. There still stands a statue of Sarmiento at Brown University . While on this trip, he
4323-582: The Venezuelan Coastal Range , which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America. Cities and large towns are connected with asphalt -paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle. The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example,
4454-674: The War of the Pacific between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely landlocked ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978. Because of
4585-602: The equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation . The world's highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft). The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera , a chain of mountain ranges ( cordillera ) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of
4716-486: The primary school La Escuela de la Patria . He was a good student, and earned the title of First Citizen ( Primer Ciudadano ) of the school. After completing primary school, his mother wanted him to go to Córdoba to become a priest . He had spent a year reading the Bible and often spent time as a child helping his uncle with church services , but Sarmiento soon became bored with religion and school, and got involved with
4847-399: The rail disaster of 2012, the government revoked its contract with TBA and the services were taken over by a newly created state-owned company, SOFSE , which later renewed the urban parts of the network with new rolling stock and infrastructure. The interurban service of Ferrocarril Sarmiento is second in number of passengers after Ferrocarril General Roca . The Ferrocarril Sarmiento was
4978-483: The rodent order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean condor , the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere , occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities. Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul , cougar , foxes in the genus Pseudalopex , and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of
5109-703: The 1,000-kilometer-wide (620 mi) Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate , which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. The far east regions of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of the earth, being overridden by
5240-469: The Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827. In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are Bogotá , with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and Santiago , Medellín , Cali , and Quito . Lima is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and
5371-405: The Andes are tobacco and potatoes . The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , and Chile . These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual, and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands
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5502-510: The Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions . The Andes are the location of several high plateaus —some of which host major cities such as Quito , Bogotá , Cali , Arequipa , Medellín , Bucaramanga , Sucre , Mérida , El Alto , and La Paz . The Altiplano Plateau is the world's second highest after the Tibetan Plateau . These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate:
5633-521: The Andes end at the Pacific Ocean , although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less-rugged topography. The Andes also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has
5764-462: The Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally-consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and
5895-526: The Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure, and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, while the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia . The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just kilometers away from
6026-542: The Andes, as well as the entire Andean range, and the combined mountain chain along the western part of the North and South American continents. The Andes can be divided into three sections: At the northern end of the Andes, the separate Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often, but not always, treated as part of the Northern Andes. The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao , which lie in
6157-927: The Andes, in 1841 Samiento started writing for the Valparaíso newspaper El Mercurio , as well working as a publisher of the Crónica Contemporánea de Latino América ("Contemporary Latin American Chronicle"). In 1842, Sarmiento was appointed the Director of the first Normal School in South America; the same year he also founded the newspaper El Progreso . During this time he sent for his family from San Juan to Chile. In 1843, Sarmiento published Mi Defensa ("My Defence"), while continuing to teach. And in May 1845, El Progreso started
6288-403: The Andes. The Sierras de Córdoba , where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary . Further south in southern Patagonia , the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in
6419-410: The Argentine people could not recognize at the time with the soaring standard of living which came with high prices, high wages, and an increased national debt. There is a building named in his honor at the Argentine embassy in Washington D.C. Today, there is a statue in honor of Sarmiento in Boston on the Commonwealth Avenue Mall , between Gloucester and Hereford streets, erected in 1973. There
6550-436: The BAWR was sold to British company "The Buenos Aires Western Railway Limited", mostly known for its Spanish form "Ferrocarril del Oeste". Once it was given to the British, the railway continued expanding along the country, reaching the La Pampa , San Luis and Mendoza Provinces. By 1914 the line extended to the Andes but the beginning of World War I frustrated the plans to cross to neighborhood Republic of Chile . After
6681-459: The British-owned company Buenos Aires Western Railway on 13 February 1947. The state-owned company created with the nationalization, Ferrocarriles Argentinos took over all the English and French railway lines. When Ferrocarriles Argentinos was dissolved and the long-distance services closed by the government of Argentina (with Carlos Menem as president), the freight lines of the FC Sarmiento were given in concession to Ferroexpreso Pampeano . On
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#17327717710116812-453: The General Director of Schools for the Province of Buenos Aires. That same year, he became the Senator for San Juan, a post that he held until 1879, when he became Interior Minister. But he soon resigned, following conflict with the Governor of Buenos Aires, Carlos Tejedor . He then assumed the post of Superintendent General of Schools for the National Education Ministry under President Roca and published El Monitor de la Educación Común , which
6943-438: The Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas , Chachapoyas , Cañaris ) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro . One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu , which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of
7074-409: The Indians? For the savages of America, I feel an invincible repugnance that I cannot cure. Those scoundrels are not anything more than disgusting Indians that I would hang if they reappeared. Lautaro and Caupolicán are dirty Indians, because that's how they are all. Incapable of progress, their extermination is providential and useful, sublime and great. They must be exterminated without even sparing
7205-425: The Interior Minister of General Mitre's government , Guillermo Rawson . Sarmiento stepped down as governor of San Juan to become the Plenipotentiary Minister to the United States, where he was sent in 1865, soon after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln . Moved by the story of Lincoln, Sarmiento ended up writing his book Vida de Lincoln . It was on this trip that Sarmiento received an honorary degree from
7336-407: The Patagonian Orocline. The western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic , when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana . The formation of the modern Andes began with
7467-401: The Red Line, a train line that would bring goods to Buenos Aires in order to better facilitate trade with Great Britain. By the end of his presidency, the Red Line extended 1,331 kilometres (827 mi). In 1869, he conducted Argentina's first national census. Though Sarmiento is well known historically, he was not a popular president. Indeed, Rock judges that "by and large his administration
7598-418: The agreement whereby the government took over all the railway line. That same year, a decree by the presidency stated that the railway lines would be named with names of national heroes or notable people of Argentina. The Ferrocarril del Oeste received the name " Domingo Faustino Sarmiento ", honoring the memory of educator and former President of Argentina born in San Juan Province (one of the regions served by
7729-402: The area of the maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau , and according to Isacks (1988) the Orocline is related to crustal shortening . The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow. Further south lies the Maipo Orocline, a more subtle orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward-concave break in the trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies
7860-468: The barbarism of the gaucho and especially the caudillo , the ruthless strongmen of nineteenth-century Argentina. While president of Argentina from 1868 to 1874, Sarmiento championed intelligent thought—including education for children and women—and democracy for Latin America. He also took advantage of the opportunity to modernize and develop train systems, a postal system, and a comprehensive education system. He spent many years in ministerial roles on
7991-433: The construction, service on the surface line will continue. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Domingo Faustino Sarmiento ( Spanish: [doˈmiŋɡo saɾˈmjento] ; 15 February 1811 – 11 September 1888) was an Argentine activist, intellectual, writer, statesman and President of Argentina . His writing spanned a wide range of genres and topics, from journalism to autobiography, to political philosophy and history. He
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#17327717710118122-475: The cost of order and decorum. He put great importance on law and citizen participation. These ideas he most equated to Rome and to the United States, a society which he viewed as exhibiting similar qualities. In order to civilize the Argentine society and make it equal to that of Rome or the United States, Sarmiento believed in eliminating the caudillos, or the larger landholdings and establishing multiple agricultural colonies run by European immigrants. Coming from
8253-422: The crossing of the Buenos Aires Port railway and Cangallo street, in Puerto Madero . There were four daily services every 40 minutes. The length of the branch was 7.5 km with no stations between terminus, that allowed trains to run at 30 km/h. The most part of the voyage was underground. Finally, this branch was closed on 1 January 1951 due to the very few number of passengers transported. The causes of
8384-399: The dry climate that reduced the disturbing actions of meteoric water . The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates . Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni , the former being the largest source of lithium and the latter
8515-478: The dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost-resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot . The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America . Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were among
8646-441: The economy, and religious liberty. Though a Catholic himself, he began to adopt the ideas of separation of church and state modeled after the US. He believed that there should be more religious freedom, and less religious affiliation in schools. This was one of many ways in which Sarmiento tried to connect South America to North America. Sarmiento believed that the material and social needs of people had to be satisfied but not at
8777-480: The educational system enabled 100,000 children to attend school. He also pushed forward modernization more generally, building infrastructure including 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of telegraph line across the country for improved communications, making it easier for the government in Buenos Aires and the provinces to communicate; modernizing the postal and train systems which he believed to be integral for interregional and national economies, as well as building
8908-517: The end of the decade. The performance of the Sarmiento line was to be greatly improved by drilling a new tunnel. Under plans announced in 2006, a 33 km tunnel would be bored between Moreno and Caballito in order to replace the surface alignment of the Sarmiento commuter route. According to the Minister of the Interior and Transport, the first stage was to cost 11·5bn pesos, removing many level crossings which would "avoid many accidents and much loss of life". The new underground alignment would increase
9039-501: The establishment of the century-long Inca Empire . This all changed in the 16th century, when the Spanish conquistadors colonized the mountains in advance of the mining economy. In the tide of anti-imperialist nationalism, the Andes became the scene of a series of independence wars in the 19th century, when rebel forces swept through the region to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. Since then, many former Spanish territories have become five independent Andean states. The climate in
9170-519: The events of the Triassic , when Pangaea began the breakup that resulted in developing several rifts . The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting , faulting , and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion . Across
9301-423: The extreme in the slopes near the virtually-lifeless Atacama Desert. About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot . The small tree Cinchona pubescens , a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria , is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from
9432-634: The federal and state levels where he travelled abroad and examined other education systems . Sarmiento died in Asunción , Paraguay, at the age of 77 from a heart attack . He was buried in Buenos Aires . Today, he is respected as a political innovator and writer. Miguel de Unamuno considered him among the greatest writers of Castilian prose. Sarmiento was born in Carrascal, a poor suburb of San Juan, Argentina on 15 February 1811. His father, José Clemente Quiroga Sarmiento y Funes, had served in
9563-527: The first coaches by Toshiba made their debut on the rail. The works on Once took a long time, having finished in 1972. Three years later the Floresta station (the first terminus of the railway) was also remodeled. During the 80s the Government of Argentina reorganized the railway system of Greater Buenos Aires railway system, creating the "Línea Metropolitana", formed by the respective suburban rail lines. This lasted only 5 years, having been dissolved before
9694-464: The forelands of the Atacama Desert , some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occur, making Chile and Peru the first- and second-largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from
9825-441: The gaucho had ended, and the age of the merchant and cattleman had begun." Sarmiento sought to create basic freedoms, and wanted to ensure civil safety and progress for everyone, not just the few. Sarmiento's tour of the United States had given him many new ideas about politics, democracy, and the structure of society, especially when he was the Argentine ambassador to the country from 1865 to 1868. He found New England , specifically
9956-555: The genus Nothoprocta ), Andean goose , giant coot , flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea , Andean flicker , diademed sandpiper-plover , miners , sierra-finches and diuca-finches . Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe and Titicaca water frog . A few species of hummingbirds , notably some hillstars , can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in
10087-512: The glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to 2,060 m (6,759 ft) and on the west side to about 1,220 m (4,003 ft) above sea level. The massifs of Aconcagua (6,961 m (22,838 ft)), Tupungato (6,550 m (21,490 ft)), and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m (20,046 ft)) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by
10218-455: The governor. During this time, Sarmiento fell in love and had an illegitimate daughter named Ana Faustina, who Sarmiento did not acknowledge until she married. In 1836, Sarmiento returned to San Juan, seriously ill with typhoid fever; his family and friends thought he would die upon his return, but he recovered and established an anti-federalist journal called El Zonda . The government of San Juan did not like Sarmiento's criticisms and censored
10349-556: The humid Andean forests (" cloud forests ") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and far northwestern Argentina. These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir , spectacled bear , and yellow-tailed woolly monkey . Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain toucans , quetzals , and
10480-517: The hyperarid Atacama Desert . Rainforests and tropical dry forests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished , especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Opposite the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile, and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles , they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching
10611-547: The idea of freedom of the press and began two new periodicals entitled La Tribuna and La Crónica respectively, which strongly attacked Juan Manuel de Rosas. During this stay in Chile, Sarmiento's essays became more strongly opposed to Juan Manuel de Rosas. The Argentine government tried to have Sarmiento extradited from Chile to Argentina, but the Chilean government refused to hand him over. In 1850, he published both Argirópolis and Recuerdos de Provincia (Recollections of
10742-633: The ire of the provinces, and civil war was the result. Support for a strong, centralized Argentine government was based in Buenos Aires, and gave rise to two opposing groups. The wealthy and educated of the Unitarian Party , such as Sarmiento, favored centralized government. In opposition to them were the Federalists , who were mainly based in rural areas and tended to reject European mores. Numbering figures such as Manuel Dorrego and Juan Facundo Quiroga among their ranks, they were in favor of
10873-628: The lack of passengers were the few daily services and the risk of accidents although the most important reason for the closure was the Line A of Buenos Aires Underground that offered a similar service but adding the possibility to combine with other services such as the branch to Moreno in Once de Septiembre station. In 1951 the Liniers-Ingeniero Brian freight branch was definitely closed. The Perito Moreno Highway would be later built over
11004-555: The larger glaciers descend to sea level. The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided into two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes . Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of the Atacama Desert to the area of the Maule River , precipitation is more sporadic, and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving
11135-399: The latter's advice; and in time he would become the group's most fervent supporter. In 1840, after being arrested and accused of conspiracy, Sarmiento was forced into exile in Chile again. It was en route to Chile that, in the baths of Zonda, he wrote the graffiti "On ne tue point les idées," an incident that would later serve as the preface to his book Facundo . Once on the other side of
11266-529: The levels of education and communication. Based on his travels, he wrote the book Viajes por Europa, África, y América which was published in 1849. In 1848, Sarmiento voluntarily left to Chile once again. During the same year, he met widow Benita Martínez Pastoriza, married her, and adopted her son, Domingo Fidel, or Dominguito, who would be killed in action during the War of the Triple Alliance at Curupaytí in 1866. Sarmiento continued to exercise
11397-457: The little one, who already has the instinctive hatred for the civilized man.” Sarmiento was a prolific author. The following is a selection of his other works: The impact of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento is most obviously seen in the establishment of September 11 as Panamerican Teacher's Day which was done in his honor at the 1943 Interamerican Conference on Education, held in Panama . Today, he
11528-516: The love of work and the spirit of enterprise that causes the development of wealth and prosperity." As a form of freedom of expression, Sarmiento began to write political commentary. In addition to writing, he also began teaching in Los Andes . Due to his innovative style of teaching, he found himself in conflict with the governor of the province. He founded his own school in Pocuro as a response to
11659-491: The magazine by imposing an unaffordable tax upon each purchase. Sarmiento was forced to cease publication of the magazine in 1840. He also founded a school for girls during this time called the Santa Rosa High School, which was a preparatory school. In addition to the school, he founded a Literary Society. It is around this time that Sarmiento became associated with the so-called " Generation of 1837 ". This
11790-458: The main allies of General Paz, including the Governor of San Juan, and in 1831 Sarmiento fled to Chile. He did not return to Argentina for five years. At the time, Chile was noted for its good public administration, its constitutional organization, and the rare freedom to criticize the regime. In Sarmiento's view, Chile had "Security of property, the continuation of order, and with both of these,
11921-523: The main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores . Only recently have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected. Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft. However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make
12052-456: The military during the wars of independence , returning prisoners of war to San Juan. His mother, Doña Paula Zoila de Albarracín e Irrazábal, was a very pious woman, who lost her father at a young age and was left with very little to support herself. As a result, she took to selling her weaving in order to afford to build a house of her own. On 21 September 1801, José and Paula were married. They had 15 children, 9 of whom died young; Domingo
12183-622: The most productive zones of Buenos Aires Province . During this period, the BAWR's main rival was the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway so both companies were involved in a hard competition to extend their rails to the southwest territory of Buenos Aires. In 1887 the Argentine state and provincial governments sold all the public companies, with the argument "The State is the worst administrator" (according to then president Miguel Juárez Celman 's speech). Therefore,
12314-576: The nearly-7,000-metre (22,966 ft) highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, for example the Plomo Glacier and the Horcones Glaciers, do not even reach 10 km (6.2 mi) in length and have only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20,000 years ago,
12445-538: The newspaper El Nacional . He was also appointed town councillor in 1856, and 1857 he joined the provincial Senate, a position he held until 1861. It was in 1861, shortly after Mitre became Argentine president, that Sarmiento left Buenos Aires and returned to San Juan, where he was elected governor, a post he took up in 1862. It was then that he passed the Statutory Law of Public Education , making it mandatory for children to attend primary school. It allowed for
12576-649: The only school in town. Later that year, his mother wrote to him asking him to come home. Sarmiento refused, only to receive a response from his father that he was coming to collect him. His father had persuaded the governor of San Juan to send Sarmiento to Buenos Aires to study at the College of Moral Sciences ( Colegio de Ciencias Morales ). Soon after Sarmiento's return, the province of San Juan broke out into civil war and Facundo Quiroga invaded Sarmiento's town. As historian William Katra describes this "traumatic experience": At sixteen years of age, he stood in front of
12707-405: The other hand, some passenger services were taken over by Ferrobaires , a state-owned company established by the government of Buenos Aires Province. The urban and suburban services were operated by transitional company FEMESA until they were given in concession to local private company Trenes de Buenos Aires (TBA), which was widely criticized due to the poor conditions of its services. After
12838-776: The outbreak of Yellow Fever in Buenos Aires and the risk of civil war. Moreover, Sarmiento's presidency was further marked by ongoing rivalry between Buenos Aires and the provinces. In the war against Paraguay, Sarmiento's adopted son was killed. Sarmiento suffered from immense grief and was thought to never have been the same again. On 22 August 1873, Sarmiento was the target of an unsuccessful assassination attempt, when two Italian anarchist brothers shot at his coach . They had been hired by federal caudillo Ricardo López Jordán . A year later in 1874, he completed his term as President and stepped down, handing his presidency over to Nicolás Avellaneda , his former Minister of Education. In 1875, following his term as President, Sarmiento became
12969-561: The railway). The branch Darragueira-Huinca Renancó of Bahía Blanca and North Western Railway , that had been administrated by the Great Western Railway) was also added to the FC Sarmiento. On 3 March 1949, a new service was opened on the initiative of Secretary of Transport Juan Castro. It was run through a tunnel by wooden-bodied coaches between Caballito and the recently inaugurated "1° de Marzo" station, located on
13100-402: The rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans, and wheat). Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops, which guarantees an early yield in periods of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft)). In addition, it makes cropping in
13231-488: The rape of civilized society by incarnated evil. Unable to attend school in Buenos Aires due to the political turmoil, Sarmiento chose to fight against Quiroga. He joined and fought in the unitarian army, only to be placed under house arrest when San Juan was eventually taken over by Quiroga after the battle of Pilar . He was later released, only to join the forces of General Paz , a key unitarian figure. Fighting and war soon resumed, but, one by one, Quiroga vanquished
13362-460: The same connection via southern Bolivia. There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay , in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay. For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during
13493-640: The serial publication of the first edition of his best-known work, Facundo ; in July, Facundo appeared in book form. Between the years 1845 and 1847, Sarmiento travelled on behalf of the Chilean government across parts of South America to Uruguay , Brazil , to Europe, France , Spain , Algeria , Italy , Armenia , Switzerland , England , to Cuba , and to North America, the United States and Canada in order to examine different education systems and
13624-406: The service frequency to every 3 minutes, increasing capacity from 100 million to 280 million passenger-journeys a year. The tunnel segment would have 13 underground stations. Drilling took place for a few months in 2012, was suspended, resumed in 2016, and suspended again in July 2019 due to lack of funds; as of January 2020 the government is studying its options regarding contract cancellation. During
13755-402: The shop he tended and viewed the entrance into San Juan of Facundo Quiroga and some six hundred mounted montonera horsemen. They constituted an unsettling presence [. . . ]. That sight, with its overwhelmingly negative associations, left an indelible impression on his budding consciousness. For the impressionable youth Quiroga's ascent to protagonist status in the province's affairs was akin to
13886-721: The snow-covered peak of Cotopaxi . The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,764 and 15,748 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,748–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru and northern Chile south to about 30°S before descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S , 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S , 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S , and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S ; from 50°S, several of
14017-526: The subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower-magnitude, more-frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have
14148-637: The subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate . To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins , such as the Orinoco Basin , the Amazon Basin , the Madre de Dios Basin, and the Gran Chaco , that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane . To the west,
14279-634: The successor of Buenos Aires Western Railway , a company founded by a group of porteño people from the "Sociedad del Camino de Hierro de Buenos Aires al Oeste". Initially a State company, this railway had been the first of Argentina, inaugurated on 29 August 1857. During its first years the service covered a 10 km path from the Plaza Del Parque station (where the Teatro Colón is located nowadays) to La Floresta , then part of San José de Flores Partido. The railway expanded its service to
14410-452: The tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via motorized vehicles is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador . Locally, the relatives of the camel , the llama , and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys , mules , and horses are also useful. The ancient peoples of
14541-553: The tracks. Other branches closed were Villa Luro-Versalles (on 5 October 1952) and the "Basílica de Luján" In 1953 the first electronic warning devices were installed on the Boyacá street level crossing of Flores district, having been the first in Argentina. In 1955 the works to improve the Once de Septiembre station began. One year later a new railway signalling system was installed on the Once-Moreno branch. On 30 June 1956,
14672-422: The uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of Chile, ocean currents and prevailing winds carried moisture away from the Chilean coast. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment-starved, causing excess friction and an increased rate of compressed coastal uplift. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to
14803-426: The western edge of South America . The range is 8,900 km (5,530 mi) long and 200 to 700 km (124 to 435 mi) wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S latitude ) and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,123 ft). The Andes extend from South to North through seven South American countries: Argentina , Chile , Bolivia , Peru , Ecuador , Colombia , and Venezuela . Along their length,
14934-606: The word. My father is a good man whose life has nothing remarkable except [for his] having served in subordinate positions in the War of Independence... My mother is the true figure of Christianity in its purest sense; with her, trust in Providence was always the solution to all difficulties in life." At the age of four, Sarmiento was taught to read by his father and his uncle, José Eufrasio Quiroga Sarmiento, who later became Bishop of Cuyo . Another uncle who influenced him in his youth
15065-642: The world for amphibians . The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic). The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano , while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool . The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas , two threatened members of
15196-470: The world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now-mostly-depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí . The Andes Mountains, initially inhabited by hunter-gatherers , experienced the development of agriculture and the rise of politically centralized civilizations , which culminated in
15327-440: Was Facundo , a critique of Juan Manuel de Rosas , that Sarmiento wrote while working for the newspaper El Progreso during his exile in Chile. The book brought him far more than just literary recognition; he expended his efforts and energy on the war against dictatorships, specifically that of Rosas, and contrasted enlightened Europe—a world where, in his eyes, democracy, social services, and intelligent thought were valued—with
15458-412: Was Domingo de Oro, a notable figure in the young Argentine Republic who was influential in bringing Juan Manuel de Rosas to power. Though Sarmiento did not follow de Oro's political and religious leanings, he learned the value of intellectual integrity and honesty. He developed scholarly and oratorical skills, qualities which de Oro was famous for. In 1816, at the age of five, Sarmiento began attending
15589-457: Was a disappointment". During his presidency, Argentina conducted an unpopular war against Paraguay; at the same time, people were displeased with him for not fighting for the Straits of Magellan from Chile. Although he increased productivity, he increased expenditures, which also negatively affected his popularity. In addition, the arrival of a large influx of European immigrants was blamed for
15720-410: Was a group of activists, who included Esteban Echeverría , Juan Bautista Alberdi , and Bartolomé Mitre , who spent much of the 1830s to 1880s first agitating for and then bringing about social change, advocating republicanism, free trade, freedom of speech, and material progress. Though, based in San Juan, Sarmiento was absent from the initial creation of this group, in 1838 he wrote to Alberdi seeking
15851-558: Was a member of a group of intellectuals, known as the Generation of 1837 , who had a great influence on 19th-century Argentina . He was particularly concerned with educational issues and was also an important influence on the region's literature. Sarmiento grew up in a poor but politically active family that paved the way for many of his future accomplishments. Between 1843 and 1850, he was frequently in exile , and wrote in both Chile and in Argentina. His greatest literary achievement
15982-473: Was asked to run for President again. He won, taking office on 12 October 1868. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento served as President of the Republic of Argentina from 1868 to 1874, becoming president despite the maneuverings of his predecessor Bartolomé Mitre . According to biographer Allison Bunkley, his presidency "marks the advent of the middle, or land-owning classes as the pivot power of the nation. The age of
16113-538: Was back in place and had appointed Rosas as governor of Buenos Aires. The first time Sarmiento was forced to leave home was with his uncle, José de Oro, in 1827, because of his military activities. José de Oro was a priest who had fought in the Battle of Chacabuco under General San Martín . Together, Sarmiento and de Oro went to San Francisco del Monte de Oro , in the neighbour province of San Luis . He spent much of his time with his uncle learning and began to teach at
16244-602: Was buried in Buenos Aires, after a ten-day trip. His tomb at La Recoleta Cemetery lies under a sculpture, a condor upon a pylon, designed by himself and executed by Victor de Pol . Pedro II , the Emperor of Brazil and a great admirer of Sarmiento, sent to his funeral procession a green and gold crown of flowers with a message written in Spanish remembering the highlights of his life: " Civilization and Barbarism , Tonelero , Monte Caseros , Petrópolis , Public Education. Remembrance and Homage from Pedro de Alcântara." Sarmiento
16375-494: Was installed as governor of Buenos Aires province. He quickly made peace with Brazil but, on returning to Argentina, was overthrown and executed by the Unitarian general Juan Lavalle , who took Dorrego's place. However, Lavalle did not spend long as governor either: he was soon overthrown by militias composed largely of gauchos led by Rosas and Estanislao López . By the end of 1829 the old legislature that Lavalle had disbanded
16506-421: Was later broken up during the process of railway privatisation beginning in 1991 during Carlos Menem 's presidency. The principal lines departed from Once railway station in Buenos Aires to the west through the provinces of Buenos Aires , La Pampa , Córdoba , San Luis and Mendoza . The railway was created after the nationalization of 5 ft 6 in ( 1,676 mm ) broad gauge lines on
16637-556: Was that education was the key to happiness and success, and that a nation could not be democratic if it was not educated. "We must educate our rulers," he said. "An ignorant people will always choose Rosas.". His views on the South American Indians have been more controversial, with some scholars arguing Sarmiento's views reflected the racism of his day. For example, in the periodical El Nacional, dated November 25, 1857, Sarmiento wrote: “Will we be able to exterminate
16768-411: Was the only son to survive to adulthood. Sarmiento was greatly influenced by his parents, his mother who was always working hard, and his father who told stories of being a patriot and serving his country, something Sarmiento strongly believed in. In Sarmiento's own words: I was born in a family that lived long years in mediocrity bordering on destitution, and which is to this day poor in every sense of
16899-514: Was then announced that only ten pupils would receive the scholarship. The selection was made by lot, and Sarmiento was not one of the scholars whose name was drawn. Like many other nineteenth century Argentines prominent in public life, he was a freemason . In 1826, an assembly elected Bernardino Rivadavia as president of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata . This action roused
17030-408: Was used for the production of chicha , important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco , cotton , and coffee are the main export crops. Coca , despite eradication programs in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea , and illegally for the production of cocaine . In unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In
17161-477: Was well known for his modernization of the country, and for his improvements to the educational system. He firmly believed in democracy and European liberalism, but was most often seen as a romantic. Sarmiento was well versed in Western philosophy including the works of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill . He was particularly fascinated with the liberty given to those living in the United States, which he witnessed as
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