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81-403: Schering-Plough manufactured several pharmaceutical drugs , the most well-known of which were the allergy drugs Claritin and Clarinex , an anti- cholesterol drug Vytorin , and a brain tumor drug Temodar . These are now available from Merck & Co. Schering-Plough also owned and operated the major foot care brand name Dr. Scholl's and the skin care line Coppertone . These also became

162-600: A reverse merger , Merck became a subsidiary of Schering-Plough, which renamed itself Merck. One of Schering-Plough's plants, in Upper Hutt, New Zealand was the largest single site for the production of veterinary vaccines in the world. This was primarily because New Zealand 's isolation has formed a natural quarantine , leaving the country free of rabies , foot and mouth , scrapie , bovine spongiform encephalopathy , and many other livestock diseases. It formerly had echinococcosis , but this has been eradicated. The site

243-642: A broadcasting division, operating radio stations in Atlanta, Georgia ( WPLO-AM & FM ); Baltimore, Maryland ( WCAO-AM & FM ); Boston, Massachusetts ( WCOP-AM & FM ); Chicago, Illinois ( WJJD-AM & FM ); and Memphis, Tennessee ( WMPS-AM & FM ). Following the entry of the United States into World War II in 1941, U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt ordered Schering AG 's U.S. assets be seized. These became

324-437: A clear fluid called hydatid fluid, are spherical, and typically consist of one compartment and are usually only found in one area of the body. While the cysts found in those with alveolar and polycystic echinococcosis are similar to those found in those with cystic echinococcosis, the alveolar and polycystic echinococcosis cysts usually have multiple compartments and have infiltrative as opposed to expansive growth. Depending on

405-435: A critical role, often then selling the rights to larger companies that have the resources to run the clinical trials. Drug discovery is different from Drug Development. Drug Discovery is often considered the process of identifying new medicine. At the same time, Drug development is delivering a new drug molecule into clinical practice. In its broad definition, this encompasses all steps from the basic research process of finding

486-415: A dead end for the parasitic infection cycle, unless eaten by dogs or wolves after death. An adult worm resides in the small intestine of a definitive host. A single gravid proglottid releases eggs that are passed in the feces of the definitive host. The egg is then ingested by an intermediate host. The egg then hatches in the small intestine of the intermediate host and releases an oncosphere that penetrates

567-441: A form of treatment for alveolar echinococcosis although it is seen as incredibly risky since it often leads to echinococcosis re-infection in the person afterwards. Since polycystic echinococcosis is constrained to such a particular area of the world and is not well described or found in many people, treatment of polycystic echinococcosis is less defined than that of cystic and alveolar echinococcosis. While surgical removal of cysts

648-575: A group of 2245 elderly Americans (average age of 71) surveyed over the period 2010 – 2011, those percentages were 88%, 38%, and 64%. One of the key classifications is between traditional small molecule drugs; usually derived from chemical synthesis and biological medical products ; which include recombinant proteins , vaccines , blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG ), gene therapy , and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Pharmaceuticals or drugs or medicines are classified into various other groups besides their origin on

729-429: A histological examination of a tissue biopsy from the person is another way to diagnose alveolar echinococcosis. Similar to the diagnosis of alveolar echinococcosis and cystic echinococcosis, the diagnosis of polycystic echinococcosis uses imaging techniques, in particular ultrasonography and CT scans, to detect polycystic structures within the person's body. However, imaging is not the preferred method of diagnosis since

810-505: A list of essential medicines . A sampling of classes of medicine includes: Pharmaceuticals may also be described as "specialty", independent of other classifications, which is an ill-defined class of drugs that might be difficult to administer, require special handling during administration, require patient monitoring during and immediately after administration, have particular regulatory requirements restricting their use, and are generally expensive relative to other drugs. Drugs affecting

891-615: A number of studies that suggest that PAIR with medical therapy is more effective than surgery in terms of disease recurrence, and morbidity and mortality. There is currently research and studies looking at new treatment involving percutaneous thermal ablation (PTA) of the germinal layer in the cyst by means of a radiofrequency ablation device. This form of treatment is still relatively new and requires much more testing before being widely used. For alveolar echinococcosis, surgical removal of cysts combined with chemotherapy (using albendazole and/or mebendazole) for up to two years after surgery

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972-634: A part of the new company. As of June 2005, Schering-Plough had 1.4% market share in the U.S., placing it seventeenth in the top twenty pharmaceutical corporations by sales compiled by IMS Health . Schering-Plough was a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA), a membership which is also maintained by the new Merck & Co. Schering was founded in 1851 by Ernst Christian Friedrich Schering as Schering AG in Germany . Plough, Incorporated

1053-452: A process known as reverse pharmacology . Hits from these screens are then tested in cells and then in animals for efficacy . Even more recently, scientists have been able to understand the shape of biological molecules at the atomic level and to use that knowledge to design (see drug design ) drug candidates. Modern drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry , and optimization of those hits to increase

1134-411: A process of identifying a new medicine. Development: Chemicals extracted from natural products are used to make pills, capsules, or syrups for oral use. Injections for direct infusion into the blood drops for eyes or ears. Preclinical research : Drugs go under laboratory or animal testing, to ensure that they can be used on Humans. Clinical testing: The drug is used on people to confirm that it

1215-437: A scolex, neck and typically three proglottids, one of which is immature, another of which is mature and the third of which is gravid (or containing eggs). The scolex of the adult worm contains four suckers and a rostellum that has about 25–50 hooks. The major morphological difference among different species of Echinococcus is the length of the tapeworm. E. granulosus is approximately 2 to 7 mm while E. multilocularis

1296-538: A significantly high fatality rate, and may have the potential to become an emerging disease in many countries. A formal diagnosis of any type of echinococcosis requires a combination of tools that involve imaging techniques, histopathology, or nucleic acid detection and serology. For cystic echinococcosis diagnosis, imaging is the main method—while serology tests (such as indirect hemagglutination, ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay), immunoblots or latex agglutination) that use antigens specific for E. granulosus verify

1377-499: A suitable molecular target to supporting the drug's commercial launch. Drug development is the process of bringing a new drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery . It includes pre-clinical research (microorganisms/animals) and clinical trials (on humans) and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval to market the drug. Drug Development Process Discovery: The Drug Development process starts with Discovery,

1458-432: A thick outer, non-cellular membrane, which covers the thin germinal epithelium. From this epithelium, cells begin to grow within the cyst. These cells then become vacuolated, and are known as brood capsules, which are the parts of the parasite from which protoscolices bud. Often, daughter cysts also form within cysts. Echinococcus adult worms develop from protoscolices and are typically 6 mm or less in length and have

1539-598: A vein , or by drops put into the ear or eye . A medication that does not contain an active ingredient and is used in research studies is called a placebo . In Europe, the term is "medicinal product", and it is defined by EU law as: In the US, a "drug" is: Drug use among elderly Americans has been studied; in a group of 2,377 people with an average age of 71 surveyed between 2005 and 2006, 84% took at least one prescription drug, 44% took at least one over-the-counter (OTC) drug, and 52% took at least one dietary supplement ; in

1620-504: Is a medicine or a chemical compound used to treat or cure illness. According to Encyclopædia Britannica , medication is "a substance used in treating a disease or relieving pain ". As defined by the National Cancer Institute , dosage forms of medication can include tablets , capsules , liquids, creams , and patches. Medications can be administered in different ways, such as by mouth , by infusion into

1701-428: Is caused by Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato . The second most common form is alveolar echinococcosis (also known as alveolar colloid of the liver, alveolar hydatid disease, alveolococcosis, multilocular echinococcosis, "small fox tapeworm"), which is caused by Echinococcus multilocularis and the third is polycystic echinococcosis (also known as human polycystic hydatid disease, neotropical echinococcosis), which

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1782-400: Is caused by Echinococcus vogeli and very rarely, Echinococcus oligarthrus . Alveolar and polycystic echinococcosis are rarely diagnosed in humans and are not as widespread as cystic echinococcosis, but polycystic echinococcosis is relatively new on the medical scene and is often left out of conversations dealing with echinococcosis, and alveolar echinococcosis is a serious disease that has

1863-461: Is crucial, since echinococcosis requires the involvement of specialists from nearly all disciplines. In 2020, an international effort of scientists, from 16 countries, led to a detailed consensus on terms to be used or rejected for the genetics, epidemiology, biology, immunology, and clinical aspects of echinococcosis. In the human manifestation of the disease, E. granulosus , E. multilocularis , E. oligarthrus and E. vogeli are localized in

1944-732: Is difficult in poor and remote communities and therefore dogs readily have access to offal from livestock, thus completing the parasite cycle of Echinococcus granulosus and putting communities at risk of cystic echinococcosis. Boiling livers and lungs that contain hydatid cysts for 30 minutes has been proposed as a simple, efficient and energy- and time-saving way to kill the infectious larvae. A number of strategies are geared towards prevention and control of alveolar echinococcosis—most of which are similar to those for cystic echinococcosis. For instance, health education programs, improved water sanitation, improved hygiene and de-worming of hosts (particularly red foxes) are all effective to prevent and control

2025-565: Is improved hygiene. In addition to targeting risk factors and transmission, control and prevention strategies of cystic echinococcosis also aim at intervening at certain points of the parasite's life cycle, in particular, the infection of hosts (especially dogs) that reside with or near humans. For example, many countries endemic to echinococcosis have researched programs geared at de-worming dogs and vaccinating dogs and other livestock, such as sheep, that also act as hosts for E. granulosus . Proper disposal of carcasses and offal after home slaughter

2106-643: Is often smaller and is 4 mm or less. On the other hand, E. vogeli is found to be up to 5.6 mm long and E. oligarthrus is found to be up to 2.9 mm long. In addition to the difference in length, there are also differences in the hydatid cysts of the different species. For instance, in E. multilocularis , the cysts have an ultra thin limiting membrane and the germinal epithelium may bud externally. Furthermore, E. granulosus cysts are unilocular and full of fluid while E. multilocularis cysts contain little fluid and are multilocular. For E. vogeli , its hydatid cysts are large and are actually polycystic since

2187-458: Is preferable because of its lower risk for postoperative abdominal infection, biliary fistula , and overall morbidity. Conservative techniques are appropriate in endemic areas where surgery is performed by nonspecialist surgeons. PAIR (puncture-aspiration-injection-reaspiration) is an innovative technique representing an alternative to surgery. PAIR is a minimally invasive procedure that involves three steps: puncture and needle aspiration of

2268-485: Is safe to use. FDA Review: drug is sent to FDA before launching the drug into the market. FDA post-Market Review: The drug is reviewed and monitored by FDA for the safety once it is available to the public. The regulation of drugs varies by jurisdiction. In some countries, such as the United States, they are regulated at the national level by a single agency. In other jurisdictions, they are regulated at

2349-468: Is spread when food or water that contains the eggs of the parasite is ingested or by close contact with an infected animal. The eggs are released in the stool of meat-eating animals that are infected by the parasite. Commonly infected animals include dogs, foxes, and wolves. For these animals to become infected they must eat the organs of an animal that contains the cysts such as sheep or rodents. The type of disease that occurs in human patients depends on

2430-523: Is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with a low rate of new therapeutic discovery. In 2010, the research and development cost of each new molecular entity (NME) was approximately US$ 1.8 billion. Drug discovery is done by pharmaceutical companies, sometimes with research assistance from universities. The "final product" of drug discovery is a patent on the potential drug. The drug requires very expensive Phase I, II, and III clinical trials, and most of them fail. Small companies have

2511-800: Is that there aren't many genetic sequences that can be used for PCR that are specific only E. oligarthrus or E. vogeli . There are several different strategies that are currently being used to prevent and control cystic echinococcosis (CE). Most of these various methods try to prevent and control CE by targeting the major risk factors for the disease and the way it is transmitted. For instance, health education programs focused on cystic echinococcosis and its agents, and improved water sanitation attempt to target poor education and poor drinking water sources, which are both risk factors for contracting echinococcosis. Furthermore, since humans often come into contact with Echinococcus eggs via touching contaminated soil, animal feces and animal hair, another prevention strategy

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2592-798: Is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System . The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines . Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies , academic scientists, and governments. As a result of this complex path from discovery to commercialization, partnering has become a standard practice for advancing drug candidates through development pipelines. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed , and in some jurisdictions, drug pricing . Controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used Medicine . Medication

2673-577: Is the major method used for the diagnosis of alveolar echinococcosis while the same types of serologic tests (except now specific for E. multilocularis antigens) are used to verify the imaging results. It is also important to note that serologic tests are more valuable for the diagnosis of alveolar echinococcosis than for cystic echinococcosis since they tend to be more reliable for alveolar echinococcosis since more antigens specific for E. multilocularis are available. In addition to imaging and serology, identification of E. multilocularis infection via PCR or

2754-504: Is the only sure way to completely cure the disease. However, in inoperable cases, chemotherapy by itself can also be used. In treatment using just chemotherapy, one could use either mebendazole in three doses or albendazole in two doses. Since chemotherapy on its own is not guaranteed to completely rid of the disease, people are often kept on the drugs for extended periods of times (i.e. more than 6 months, years). In addition to surgery and chemotherapy, liver transplants are being looked into as

2835-406: Is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide . Euthanasia is not permitted by law in many countries, and consequently, medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. A single drug may contain single or multiple active ingredients . The administration is the process by which a patient takes medicine. There are three major categories of drug administration: enteral (via

2916-469: Is used per day (e.g., four times a day). It may include event-related information (e.g., 1 hour before meals, in the morning, at bedtime), or complimentary to an interval, although equivalent expressions may have different implications (e.g., every 8 hours versus 3 times a day). In the fields of medicine, biotechnology , and pharmacology , drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered. Historically, drugs were discovered by identifying

2997-508: Is useful for smaller, uncomplicated cysts (< 5 cm). Only 30% of cysts disappear with medical treatment alone. Albendazole is preferred twice a day for 1–5 months. An alternative to albendazole is mebendazole for at least 3 to 6 months. Surgery is indicated for bigger liver cysts (> 10 cm), cysts at risk of rupture and/or complicated cysts. A laparoscopic approach provides excellent cure rates with minimal morbidity and mortality . The radical technique (total cystopericystectomy)

3078-613: Is usually some degree of restriction on the availability of certain therapeutic goods depending on their risk to consumers. Echinococcosis Echinococcosis is a parasitic disease caused by tapeworms of the Echinococcus type. The two main types of the disease are cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis . Less common forms include polycystic echinococcosis and unicystic echinococcosis . The disease often starts without symptoms and this may last for years. The symptoms and signs that occur depend on

3159-506: The affinity , selectivity (to reduce the potential of side effects), efficacy/ potency , metabolic stability (to increase the half-life ), and oral bioavailability . Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, it will begin the process of drug development prior to clinical trials . One or more of these steps may, but not necessarily, involve computer-aided drug design . Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery

3240-3535: The central nervous system include psychedelics , hypnotics , anaesthetics , antipsychotics , eugeroics , antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants , monoamine oxidase inhibitors , lithium salts , and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)), antiemetics , anticonvulsants /antiepileptics, anxiolytics , barbiturates , movement disorder (e.g., Parkinson's disease ) drugs, nootropics , stimulants (including amphetamines ), benzodiazepines , cyclopyrrolones , dopamine antagonists , antihistamines , cholinergics , anticholinergics , emetics , cannabinoids , and 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists . The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs , opioids , and local anesthetics . For consciousness (anesthetic drugs) Some anesthetics include benzodiazepines and barbiturates . The main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are: NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors ), muscle relaxants , neuromuscular drugs , and anticholinesterases . Antibiotics , sympathomimetics , antihistamines , anticholinergics , NSAIDs , corticosteroids , antiseptics , local anesthetics , antifungals , and cerumenolytics. Bronchodilators , antitussives , mucolytics , decongestants , inhaled and systemic corticosteroids , beta2-adrenergic agonists , anticholinergics , mast cell stabilizers , leukotriene antagonists . Androgens , antiandrogens , estrogens , gonadotropin , corticosteroids , human growth hormone , insulin , antidiabetics ( sulfonylureas , biguanides / metformin , thiazolidinediones , insulin ), thyroid hormones , antithyroid drugs, calcitonin , diphosphonate , vasopressin analogues . Antifungal , alkalinizing agents , quinolones , antibiotics , cholinergics , anticholinergics , antispasmodics , 5-alpha reductase inhibitor , selective alpha-1 blockers , sildenafils , fertility medications . NSAIDs , anticholinergics , haemostatic drugs , antifibrinolytics , Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), bone regulators, beta-receptor agonists , follicle stimulating hormone , luteinising hormone , LHRH , gamolenic acid , gonadotropin release inhibitor , progestogen , dopamine agonists , oestrogen , prostaglandins , gonadorelin , clomiphene , tamoxifen , diethylstilbestrol . Emollients , anti-pruritics , antifungals , antiseptics , scabicides , pediculicides , tar products, vitamin A derivatives , vitamin D analogues , keratolytics , abrasives , systemic antibiotics , topical antibiotics , hormones , desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, fibrinolytics , proteolytics , sunscreens , antiperspirants , corticosteroids , immune modulators. Antibiotics , antifungals , antileprotics , antituberculous drugs , antimalarials , anthelmintics , amoebicides , antivirals , antiprotozoals , probiotics, prebiotics, antitoxins , and antivenoms. Vaccines , immunoglobulins , immunosuppressants , interferons , and monoclonal antibodies . Anti-allergics , antihistamines , NSAIDs , corticosteroids . Tonics, electrolytes and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium preparations ), parenteral nutrition , vitamins , anti-obesity drugs , anabolic drugs , haematopoietic drugs, food product drugs. Cytotoxic drugs , therapeutic antibodies , sex hormones , aromatase inhibitors , somatostatin inhibitors, recombinant interleukins , G-CSF , erythropoietin . Contrast media . A euthanaticum

3321-410: The human gastrointestinal tract ), injection into the body, and by other routes ( dermal , nasal , ophthalmic , otologic , and urogenital ). Oral administration , the most common form of enteral administration, can be performed using various dosage forms including tablets or capsules and liquid such as syrup or suspension. Other ways to take the medication include buccally (placed inside

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3402-675: The 1990s and early 2000s, there was a shift in the distribution of E. multilocularis as the infection rate of foxes escalated in certain parts of France and Germany. As a result, several new endemic areas were found in Switzerland, Germany, and Austria and surrounding countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Poland, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, and Italy. There is also evidence showing that

3483-565: The Baltic Countries are endemic areas. While alveolar echinococcosis is not extremely common, it is believed that in the coming years it will be an emerging or re-emerging disease in certain countries as a result of E. multilocularis ’ ability to spread. Unlike the previous two species of Echinococcus , E. vogeli and E. oligarthrus are limited to Central and South America. Furthermore, infections by E. vogeli and E. oligarthrus (polycystic echinococcosis) are considered to be

3564-637: The Schering Corporation. The company was placed under a government administratorship until 1952, when it was released, and its assets sold to the private sector. In 1957, Schering acquired White Laboratories. In 1971, the Schering Corporation merged with Plough, Inc. At the time of the merger, Abe Plough became Chairman of the combined company. In 2000, Schering-Plough bought a new campus in Summit, New Jersey from Novartis . On March 12, 2007, Schering-Plough Corp. purchased Organon BioSciences ,

3645-643: The active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules , natural products , or extracts were screened in intact cells or whole organisms to identify substances that have a desirable therapeutic effect in a process known as classical pharmacology . Since sequencing of the human genome which allowed rapid cloning and synthesis of large quantities of purified proteins, it has become common practice to use high throughput screening of large compound libraries against isolated biological targets which are hypothesized to be disease-modifying in

3726-529: The active pharmaceutical ingredient manufacturer, Diosynth and gained access to human vaccine production through the subsidiary Nobilon. The three companies comprising Organon BioSciences were Organon, Diosynth, and Intervet. HomeAgain continues to use the Intervet name owned by Merck. After the merger of Schering-Plough with Merck the animal health division was still known as Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health. A merger of Merial and Intervet/Schering-Plough

3807-422: The adult or larval form of any Echinococcus species, coprophagic flies, carrion birds and arthropods can act as mechanical vectors for the eggs. There are a few aberrant cases in which carnivores play the role of the intermediate hosts. Examples are domestic cats with hydatid cysts of E. granulosus. The most common form found in humans is cystic echinococcosis (also known as unilocular echinococcosis), which

3888-399: The basis of pharmacological properties like mode of action and their pharmacological action or activity, such as by chemical properties , mode or route of administration , biological system affected, or therapeutic effects . An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps

3969-430: The certain populations are affected. In 2015, the cystic form caused about 1,200 deaths; down from 2,000 in 1990. The economic cost of the disease is estimated to be around US$ 3 billion a year. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease (NTD) and belongs to the group of diseases known as helminthiases (worm infections). It can affect other animals such as pigs, cows and horses. Terminology used in this field

4050-400: The cheek), sublingually (placed underneath the tongue), eye and ear drops (dropped into the eye or ear), and transdermally (applied to the skin). They can be administered in one dose, as a bolus . Administration frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora . The drug frequencies are often expressed as the number of times a drug

4131-493: The chest. On the other hand, if the person has cysts in the liver and is symptomatic, they will experience abdominal pain, abnormal abdominal tenderness, hepatomegaly with an abdominal mass, jaundice, fever and/or anaphylactic reaction. In addition, if the cysts were to rupture while in the body, whether during surgical extraction of the cysts or by trauma to the body, the person would most likely go into anaphylactic shock and have high fever, pruritus (itching), edema (swelling) of

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4212-425: The cyst in the body and how fast the cyst is growing. Like many other parasite infections, the course of Echinococcus infection is complex. The worm has a life cycle that requires definitive hosts and intermediate hosts . Definitive hosts are normally carnivores such as dogs, while intermediate hosts are usually herbivores such as sheep and cattle. Humans function as accidental hosts, because they are usually

4293-405: The cyst's location and size. Alveolar disease usually begins in the liver, but can spread to other parts of the body, such as the lungs or brain. When the liver is affected, the patient may experience abdominal pain , weight loss, along with yellow-toned skin discoloration from developed jaundice . Lung disease may cause pain in the chest, shortness of breath , and coughing. The infection

4374-411: The cyst, injection of a scolicidal solution for 20–30 min, and cyst-re-aspiration and final irrigation. People who undergo PAIR typically take albendazole or mebendazole from 7 days before the procedure until 28 days after the procedure. It is indicated for inoperable cases and/or patients who reject surgery, for recurrence after surgery, and for lack of response to medical treatment. There have been

4455-717: The cysts and the tapeworm heads, while in 1786 E. granulosus was accurately described by Batsch . Half a century later, during the 1850s, Karl von Siebold showed through a series of experiments that Echinococcus cysts do cause adult tapeworms in dogs. Shortly after this, in 1863, E. multilocularis was identified by Rudolf Leuckart . Then, during the early to mid 1900s, the more distinct features of E. granulosus and E. multilocularis , their life cycles and how they cause disease were more fully described as more and more people began researching and performing experiments and studies. While E. granulosus and E. multilocularis were both linked to human echinococcosis before or shortly after

4536-405: The drug unit of Netherlands-based Akzo Nobel , for $ 14.4 billion, giving the US pharmaceutical company an array of women's health products and numerous late-stage pipelines of experimental medicines. Organon itself was founded in 1923 by Dr. Saal van Zwanenberg, the president of Zwanenberg's Slachterijen en Fabrieken. On November 4, 2009 Schering-Plough merged with Merck & Co. and through

4617-562: The fact that polycystic echinococcosis is restricted to Central and South America, and that the way that humans become accidental hosts of E. oligarthrus and E. vogeli is still not completely understood. Currently there are no human vaccines against any form of echinococcosis. However, there are studies being conducted that are looking at possible vaccine candidates for an effective human vaccine against echinococcosis. A number of therapy options are presently available. Treatment with albendazole , whether combined or not with praziquantel ,

4698-674: The germinal membrane of the hydatid cyst actually proliferates both inward, to create septa that divide the hydatid into sections, and outward, to create new cysts. Like E. granulosus cysts, E. vogeli cysts are filled with fluid. As one can see from the life cycles illustrated above, all disease-causing species of Echinococcus are transmitted to intermediate hosts via the ingestion of eggs and are transmitted to definitive hosts by means of eating infected, cyst-containing organs. Humans are accidental intermediate hosts that become infected by handling soil, dirt or animal hair that contains eggs. While there are no biological or mechanical vectors for

4779-460: The imaging results. The imaging technique of choice for cystic echinococcosis is ultrasonography, since it is not only able to visualize the cysts in the body's organs, but it is also inexpensive, non-invasive and gives instant results. In addition to ultrasonography, both MRI and CT scans can and are often used although an MRI is often preferred to CT scans when diagnosing cystic echinococcosis since it gives better visualization of liquid areas within

4860-400: The intermediate host. From the embryo released from an egg develops a hydatid cyst , which grows to about 5–10 cm within the first year and is able to survive within organs for years. Cysts sometimes grow to be so large that by the end of several years or even decades, they can contain several liters of fluid. Once a cyst has reached a diameter of 1 cm, its wall differentiates into

4941-439: The intestinal wall and moves through the circulatory system into different organs, in particular the liver and lungs. Once it has invaded these organs, the oncosphere develops into a cyst. The cyst then slowly enlarges, creating protoscolices (juvenile scolices ), and daughter cysts within the cyst. The definitive host then becomes infected after ingesting the cyst-containing organs of the infected intermediate host. After ingestion,

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5022-815: The key divisions is by level of control , which distinguishes prescription drugs (those that a pharmacist dispenses only on the order of a physician, physician assistant , or qualified nurse ) from over-the-counter drugs (those that consumers can order for themselves). Another key distinction is between traditional small molecule drugs, usually derived from chemical synthesis , and biopharmaceuticals , which include recombinant proteins , vaccines , blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG ), gene therapy , monoclonal antibodies and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration , biological system affected, or therapeutic effects . An elaborate and widely used classification system

5103-408: The lips and eyelids, dyspnea, stridor and rhinorrhea. Unlike intermediate hosts, definitive hosts are usually not hurt very much by the infection. Sometimes, a lack of certain vitamins and minerals can be caused in the host by the very high demand of the parasite. The incubation period for all species of Echinococcus can be months to years, or even decades. It largely depends on the location of

5184-517: The liver (in 75% of cases), the lungs (in 5–15% of cases) and other organs in the body such as the spleen, brain, heart, and kidneys (in 10–20% of cases). In people who are infected with E. granulosus and therefore have cystic echinococcosis, the disease develops as a slow-growing mass in the body. These slow-growing masses, often called cysts, are also found in people that are infected with alveolar and polycystic echinococcosis. The cysts found in those with cystic echinococcosis are usually filled with

5265-403: The location of the cyst in the body, the person could be asymptomatic even though the cysts have grown to be very large, or be symptomatic even if the cysts are absolutely tiny. If the person is symptomatic, the symptoms will depend largely on where the cysts are located. For instance, if the person has cysts in the lungs and is symptomatic, they will have a cough, shortness of breath and/or pain in

5346-463: The method that is currently considered the standard is the isolation of protoscoleces during surgery or after the person's death and the identification of definitive features of E. oligarthrus and E. vogeli in these isolated protoscoleces. This is the main way that PE is diagnosed, but some current studies show that PCR may identify E. oligarthrus and E. vogeli in people's tissues. The only drawback of using PCR to diagnose polycystic echinococcosis

5427-562: The past two thousand years, it was not until the past couple of hundred years that real progress was made in determining and describing its parasitic origin. The first step towards figuring out the cause of echinococcosis occurred during the 17th century when Francesco Redi illustrated that the hydatid cysts of echinococcosis were of "animal" origin. Then, in 1766, Pierre Simon Pallas predicted that these hydatid cysts found in infected humans were actually larval stages of tapeworms. A few decades afterwards, in 1782, Goeze accurately described

5508-406: The protoscolices attach to the intestine. They then develop into adult worms and the cycle starts all over again. Echinococcus eggs contain an embryo that is called an oncosphere or hexcanth. The name of this embryo stems from the fact that these embryos have six hooklets. The eggs are passed through the feces of the definitive host and it is the ingestion of these eggs that lead to infection in

5589-516: The rarest form of echinococcosis. As of 2010 it caused about 1,200 deaths, down from 2,000 in 1990. Echinococcosis is a disease that has been recognized by humans for centuries. There has been mention of it in the Talmud . It was also recognized by ancient scholars such as Hippocrates , Aretaeus , Galen and Rhazes . The recommended treatments were based on herbs like thymus vulgaris and raw garlic. Although echinococcosis has been well known for

5670-443: The skin, followed by medication. Sometimes this type of disease is just watched. The alveolar form often requires surgical intervention, followed by medications. The medication used is albendazole , which may be needed for years. The alveolar disease may result in death. The disease occurs in most areas of the world and currently affects about one million people. In some areas of South America, Africa, and Asia, up to 10% of

5751-404: The spread of alveolar echinococcosis. Unlike cystic echinococcosis, however, where there is a vaccine against E. granulosus , there is currently no canidae or livestock vaccine against E. multilocularis . While a number of control and prevention strategies deal with cystic and alveolar echinococcosis, there are few methods to control and prevent polycystic echinococcosis. This is probably due to

5832-521: The state level, or at both state and national levels by various bodies, as is the case in Australia. The role of therapeutic goods regulation is designed mainly to protect the health and safety of the population. Regulation is aimed at ensuring the safety, quality, and efficacy of the therapeutic goods which are covered under the scope of the regulation. In most jurisdictions, therapeutic goods must be registered before they are allowed to be marketed. There

5913-422: The tissue. As with cystic echinococcosis, ultrasonography is the imaging technique of choice for alveolar echinococcosis and is usually complemented by CT scans since CT scans are able to detect the largest number of lesions and calcifications that are characteristic of alveolar echinococcosis. MRIs are also used in combination with ultrasonography though CT scans are preferred. Like cystic echinococcosis, imaging

5994-447: The type of Echinococcus causing the infection. Diagnosis is usually by ultrasound though computer tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be used. Blood tests looking for antibodies against the parasite may be helpful as may biopsy . Prevention of cystic disease is by treating dogs that may carry the disease and vaccination of sheep. Treatment is often difficult. The cystic disease may be drained through

6075-683: The world where there is a high rate of infection often coincide with rural, grazing areas where dogs are able to ingest organs from infected animals. E. multilocularis mainly occurs in the Northern hemisphere, including central Europe and the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. However, its distribution was not always like this. For instance, until the end of the 1980s, E. multilocularis endemic areas in Europe were known to exist only in France, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. But during

6156-575: Was also involved in publicly funded collaborative research projects, with other industrial and academic partners. One example in non-clinical safety assessment was the InnoMed PredTox . In 2004, Schering-Plough was accused of marketing gimmicks and payoffs to doctors for prescribing the company's pharmaceutical products. Schering-Plough entered a consent decree with the FDA on March 6, 2002 due to manufacturing issues with its albuterol inhaler. It

6237-511: Was founded by the Memphis, Tennessee area entrepreneur Abe Plough (1892–1984) in 1908. He borrowed $ 125 from his father to start the business at age sixteen. As a one-man business, he mixed "Plough's Antiseptic Healing Oil," a "sure cure for any ill of man or beast," and sold it off a horse-drawn buggy. Plough's acquisitions included St Joseph's Aspirin for children, Maybelline cosmetics, and Coppertone skin care products. Plough also had

6318-513: Was known locally as Coopers Animal Health , a trademark which originated in the 1850s with a British company, Cooper & Nephews ; the Coopers brand name was still in use by Schering-Plough in Australia, but not elsewhere. As a result of the acquisition of Organon BioSciences, Schering-Plough bolstered its animal health business with the Akzo Nobel subsidiary Intervet, obtained control of

6399-574: Was ordered to pay $ 500 million US dollars to the US Treasury. Medication A medication (also called medicament , medicine , pharmaceutical drug , medicinal drug or simply drug ) is a drug used to diagnose , cure , treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy ( pharmacotherapy ) is an important part of the medical field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement and on pharmacy for appropriate management. Drugs are classified in many ways. One of

6480-606: Was planned in 2010 but was abandoned in March 2011. On June 29, 2011, the company announced that the animal health division would now be known as Merck Animal Health in the United States and Canada; it is now called MSD Animal Health elsewhere in the world. Schering-Plough also received much publicity for a drug AICAR which mimics the effects of exercise, having especially potent effects when used alongside another drug GW1516 developed by GlaxoSmithKline . In addition to internal research and development activities Schering-Plough

6561-452: Was the treatment of choice for the previous two types of echinococcosis, chemotherapy is the recommended treatment approach for polycystic echinococcosis. While albendazole is the preferred drug, mebendazole can also be used if the treatment is to be for an extended period of time. Only if chemotherapy fails or if the lesions are very small is surgery advised. Very few countries are considered to be completely free of E. granulosus . Areas of

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