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61-599: The Schoellkopf Power Station was built on land owned by Jacob F. Schoellkopf above the Niagara Gorge near the American Falls , 1,600 feet (490 m) downriver from Rainbow Bridge . Understanding the growing need for electricity and the role of harnessing the Falls, Schoellkopf purchased the land for the hydraulic canal on May 1, 1877 for $ 71,000. After Schoellkopf Sr.'s death in 1903, his sons took over

122-441: A bath solution containing vegetable tannins, such as found in gallnuts , the leaves of sumac , the leaves of certain acacia trees, the outer green shells of walnuts , among other plants. The use of vegetable tanning is a process that takes longer than mineral tanning when converting rawhides into leather. Mineral tanned leather is used principally for shoes, car seats, and upholstery in homes (sofas, etc.). Vegetable tanned leather

183-405: A capacity of 34,000 hp before being shut down in 1921. Station No. 3a was completed by 1914 and housed 13 10,000-hp turbines. Station No. 3b began construction in 1918 and contained three generators totaling 112,500 hp. Station No. 3c was completed by 1924 with a capacity of 210,000 hp. As the old hydraulic canal was already operating at capacity a new tunnel was constructed to supply

244-579: A dynamo and 16 carbon arc lights which were used on the streets of Niagara Falls, New York. The first dynamo had a capacity of 1,800 horsepower and ran up to 1904 when it was abandoned in favor of Station No. 2. it was also known as the Quigley Pulp - Lower Mill and the Cliff Paper - Lower Mill. In 1898 a second much larger hydroelectric plant was built at the base of the bluff, immediately in front of Schoellkopf 's original 1874 plant, and reached

305-427: A high content of glycine , proline , and hydroxyproline , usually in the repeat -gly-pro-hypro-gly-. These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure. Collagen's high content of hydroxyproline allows cross-linking by hydrogen bonding within the helical structure. Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO 2 ) are formed by the action of hydroxide. This conversion occurs during the liming process, before introduction of

366-480: A large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries. The UN Leather Working Group (LWG) "provides an environmental audit protocol, designed to assess the facilities of leather manufacturers," for "traceability, energy conservation, [and] responsible management of waste products." Untanned hides can be dried and made pliable by rubbing and stretching

427-548: A partner in Philip Ludwig "Louis" Breithaupt 's Buffalo tanning business, eventually buying out Breithaupt's share in 1861. From 1853–54, he established tanneries at Fort Wayne, Indiana , and North Evans, New York , operating the latter for 20 years, and in 1857, he made his first large investment outside the tanning business, erecting the "North Buffalo Flouring Mills," which proved so profitable that he continued his investments with flour mills , ultimately becoming one of

488-400: A skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader. Before tanning, the skins are often dehaired, then have fat, meat and connective tissue removed. They are then washed and soaked in water with various compounds, and prepared to receive a tanning agent. They are then soaked, stretched, dried, and sometimes smoked. Preparing hides begins by curing them with salt to prevent putrefaction of

549-649: A small tannery at Whites Corners (Hamburg), Erie County . In 1846, he started a sheep skin tannery in Buffalo. In 1848, he built a tannery in Milwaukee, Wisconsin , in association with his cousin Frederick Vogel and the firm, "G. Pfister & Co." In 1850, he became interested in the Chicago firm of "C. T. Gray & Company," operating a tannery there which continued until 1856. In 1852, he became

610-594: A small town in the Kingdom of Württemberg . He was the son of Gottlieb Schoellkopf and Christina Maier. He was educated in the town schools and at the age of 14 began learning about tanneries with his father, a large leather manufacturer, who had learned the trade from his father. After completing five years of apprenticeship, he became clerk at a mercantile house in Strassberg where he worked for two years. In 1841, he decided to leave Germany and try his fortune in

671-487: Is connected with its Niagara Gorge hiking trail system. In 1853 construction of a "Hydraulic Canal" was begun, intended to bring water from the Niagara River above the falls to the river bluff below the falls. The original 1874 plant did not produce electricity but used water turbines to power belts and drive shafts for nearby mills. In 1882 Schoellkopf partnered with Charles Brush who had come to Niagara Falls with

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732-419: Is considered one of the most effective tanning compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium. This efficiency is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin, and its resistance to shrinkage in heated water. Vegetable tanning uses tannins (a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to

793-403: Is consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from olation and oxolation. Before the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to produce a tannable hide. The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium complexes are small enough to fit between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once

854-416: Is excellent for use in handbags and garments. After application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate in the basification process to increase the pH to 3.8–4.0, inducing cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen. The pH increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40 °C. Chromium's ability to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it

915-562: Is known as a tannery . The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin tannāre , derivative of tannum ( oak bark ), from French tan (tanbark), from old-Cornish tann (oak). These terms are related to the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European * dʰonu meaning ' fir tree'. (The same word is source for Old High German tanna meaning 'fir', related to modern German Tannenbaum ). Ancient civilizations used leather for waterskins , bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour , quivers , scabbards , boots , and sandals . Tanning

976-419: Is not very flexible. It is used for luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories. Wet white is a term used for leathers produced using alternative tanning methods that produce an off-white colored leather. Like wet blue, wet white is also a semifinished stage. Wet white can be produced using aldehydes , aluminum, zirconium, titanium, or iron salts, or a combination thereof. Concerns with

1037-428: Is preferred. Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated by first soaking them in a bath containing common salt (sodium chloride), usually 1 quart of salt to 1 gallon of hot water. When the water cools, one fluid ounce of sulfuric acid is added. Small skins are left in this liquor for 2 days, while larger skins between 1 week and as much as 2 months. In vegetable tanning, the hides are made to soak in

1098-421: Is tawed by soaking in a warm potash alum and salts solution, between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). The process increases the hide's pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality. Then, the hide is air dried (crusted) for several weeks, which allows it to stabilize. The use of alum alone for tanning rawhides is not recommended, as it shrinks the surface area of the skin, making it thicker and hard to

1159-420: Is the characteristic of the keratin class of proteins that gives strength to hair and wools (keratin typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied by the sharpening agent weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the covalent disulfide bond links are ultimately ruptured, weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes to unhairing, as it tends to break down

1220-540: Is the place where the skins are processed. Historically, vegetable based tanning used tannin , an acidic chemical compound derived from the bark of certain trees, in the production of leather. An alternative method, developed in the 1800s, is chrome tanning, where chromium salts are used instead of natural tannins. Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to decomposition and coloring. The place where hides are processed

1281-439: Is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a carcinogen . Formaldehyde and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays

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1342-461: Is used in leather crafting and in making small leather items, such as wallets, handbags and clothes. Chromium(III) sulfate ( [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ) has long been regarded as the most efficient and effective tanning agent. Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic than hexavalent chromium , although the latter arises in inadequate waste treatment. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give

1403-492: The Niagara River . The canal was later conveyed to a corporation known as The Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manufacturing Company , which by 1882 was the first company to generate electricity from Niagara Falls . He improved the canal and put the powerhouse to commercial use. In 1881, the company completed Schoellkopf Power Station No. 1 (which would operate until 1904). By 1882, Schoellkopf had seven mills along

1464-509: The United States in 1842. Four of his children died in infancy and two suffered health problems and died within two years of their father. Their children who lived to adulthood were: Schoellkopf died "one of Buffalo's wealthiest and best known citizens" in Buffalo, New York on September 15, 1899. Christiana died four years later on October 13, 1903. The Schoellkopfs lived in a large mansion at 553 Delaware Avenue at Allen Street on

1525-794: The Power City Bank, both in Niagara Falls, New York . He also held the presidency and served as a director for the Citizens’ Gas Company of Buffalo along with serving as vice president of the Buffalo, New York & Philadelphia Railroad . Lastly, he served as a trustee for the Buffalo General Hospital . In 1848, Schoellkopf married Sofie Christiane Duerr (1827–1903), who was also born in Germany and came to

1586-559: The Schoellkopf interests predominating, an enterprise involving some $ 62,000,000 (equivalent to $ 1,255,912,000 in 2023). Following the formation of the Niagara Falls Power Company in 1918, Schoellkopf Jr. was elected chairman of the board for the corporation, a position that he held for eighteen years. Jacob Frederick III, Paul Arthur (the son of Arthur Schoellkopf), and other third-generation members of

1647-771: The United States. He landed in New York City at 22 years old in December 1841, and was "totally unacquainted with the English language." He started working in New York City and after two years, headed West to earn more. In 1844, with $ 800 (equivalent to $ 26,000 in 2023) of capital loaned to him by his father, he moved to Buffalo, New York , to begin his own business in a small leather store which he established in Mohawk Street. In 1844, he purchased

1708-411: The adoption in medicine of soaking gut sutures in a chromium (III) solution after 1840, it was discovered that this method could also be used with leather and thus was adopted by tanners. The tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be tanned, the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done by the tanner, or by obtaining

1769-491: The case of Bangladesh, chickens (the nation's most common source of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of hexavalent chromium, adding to the national health problem load. Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases. Methylisothiazolinone , which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin. Anthracene , which

1830-436: The collagen from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure. The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and osmotic pressure increased, to the point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In brine -curing,

1891-459: The collagen proteins in the hide and coat them, causing them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack. The process also causes the hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in bark mills and used in modern times are chestnut , oak , redoul , tanoak , hemlock , quebracho , mangrove , wattle (acacia; see catechol ), and myrobalans from Terminalia spp., such as Terminalia chebula . In Ethiopia ,

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1952-416: The collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups from the side chains of the amino acids , and masking agents. Masking agents are carboxylic acids , such as acetic acid , used to suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner to further increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the chromium(III) complexes. Collagen is characterized by

2013-544: The combined vegetable oils of Niger seed ( Guizotia abyssinica ) and flaxseeds were used in treating the flesh side of the leather, as a means of tawing, rather than of tanning. In Yemen and Egypt , hides were tanned by soaking them in a bath containing the crushed leaves and bark of the Salam acacia (Acacia etbaica; A. nilotica kraussiana). Hides that have been stretched on frames are immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetable-tanned hide

2074-409: The desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is raised again to facilitate the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-tanned skins are greyish-blue, so are referred to as wet blue . Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable tanning (taking less than a day for this part of the process) and produces a stretchable leather which

2135-425: The end use of the leather, hides may be treated with enzymes to soften them, a process called bating . In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified agents, and the process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to produce them. Pickling is another term for tanning, or what is the modern equivalent of turning rawhide into leather by the use of modern chemical agents, if mineral tanning

2196-540: The family also continued to be involved as directors and stockholders of the company. In 1929, they organized the Niagara Share Corporation as a trust for all the stock owned by family members. The company continued to hold stock in the power utility until 1956. In 1867, he was on the Board of Directors for "Buffalo German Insurance Company" along with Henry Persch and William Hellriegel. He served as

2257-562: The fibers with a hide stretcher, and fatting. However the hide will revert to rawhide if not periodically replenished with fat or oil, especially if it gets wet. Many Native Americans of the arid western regions wore clothing made by this process. Smoke tanning is listed among the conventional methods like chrome tanning and vegetable tanning. Impregnation of the hide's cells with formaldehyde (from smoke) offers some microbial and water resistance. Leftover leather would historically be turned into glue . Tanners would place scraps of hides in

2318-418: The hair proteins. The isoelectric point of the collagen (a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to keratin) in the hide is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming. Any hairs remaining after liming are removed mechanically by scraping the skin with a dull knife, a process known as scudding. The pH of the collagen is then reduced so the enzymes may act on it in a process known as deliming. Depending on

2379-406: The hexaaquachromium(III) cation, [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] , which at higher pH undergoes processes called olation to give polychromium(III) compounds that are active in tanning, being the cross-linking of the collagen subunits. The chemistry of [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] is more complex in the tanning bath rather than in water due to the presence of a variety of ligands. Some ligands include the sulfate anion,

2440-459: The hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures. The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking, liming , removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing, scudding and fleshing), deliming , bating or puering, drenching, and pickling. In soaking,

2501-406: The hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated. To prevent damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period, biocides , typically dithiocarbamates , may be used. Fungicides such as TCMTB may also be added later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth. After 1980,

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2562-407: The high bank (the top edge of the Niagara Gorge north of the American Falls ) all producing power from the hydraulic canal which made Schoellkopf incredibly wealthy. In 1891, Schoellkopf Power Station No. 2 opened directly in front of the original, in the gorge below Niagara Falls , with a higher 210-foot (64 m) drop. In 1904, the company built Schoellkopf Stations No. 3A and 3B. Schoellkopf

2623-469: The largest operators of flouring mills in the Empire State . In 1870, he bought the "Frontier Mills of Buffalo," and later erected extensive mills in Niagara Falls, New York . He did not retain many of these interests long after setting them up. His approach was to ensure they were successful and sell them at a profit to enable him to seek out new outlets for his increasing capital. However, he owed

2684-489: The later milling and tanning interests until his death, some being held in his own name and others as senior of the milling firm of "Schoellkopf & Matthews." In 1877, when the Niagara Falls Canal Company went bankrupt, Schoellkopf purchased the hydraulic canal at Niagara Falls at auction for $ 71,000, (equivalent to $ 2,031,000 in 2023) in order to develop a plan for utilizing the power of

2745-409: The new station. On June 7, 1956, water began seeping into the back of the plant from the wall built against the bluff, causing the wall to crack. At 5 p.m. that day, Station No. 3c and then Station No. 3b flooded and collapsed into the Niagara River , destroying two thirds of the plant and the six generators that produced more than 300,000 horsepower. The grid lost 400,000 kilowatts of power and damage

2806-652: The operation of the power business. In 1918, Schoellkopf 's Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company merged with the Niagara Falls Power Company, which was owned by Edward Dean Adams. Much of the site is, as of 2014, occupied by the Maid of the Mist tour boat company as a maintenance area and off-season boat storage yard. The power station remains form a part of a fully accessible tourist attraction associated with Niagara Falls State Park and

2867-427: The outskirts of town, among the poor. Tanning by ancient methods is so foul-smelling that tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used. Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining flesh and fat . Hair

2928-508: The process. Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of chemical oxygen demand and total dissolved solids in water when not disposed of responsibly. These processes also use large quantities of water and produce large amounts of pollutants. Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in tanning into carcinogenic hexavalent chromium , or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium runoff and scraps are then consumed by animals, in

2989-467: The southeast corner. Their daughter, Helena, who married Hans Schmidt, and their three children lived in the mansion until they moved to a new mansion in Derby, New York , in 1914. The house was sold to Harlow C. Curtiss , who transformed the home into a boarding house. Tannery Tanning , or hide tanning , is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather . A tannery

3050-403: The tanning agent (chromium salts). Later during pickling, collagen carboxyl groups are temporarily protonated for ready transport of chromium ions. During basification step of tanning, the carboxyl groups are ionized and coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-hydroxide clusters. Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å. The difference

3111-407: The touch. If alum is applied to the fur, it makes the fur dull and harsh. Depending on the finish desired, the leather may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil, split, shaved, or dyed. The tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and aldehydes are used in the tanning step of

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3172-492: The toxicity and environmental impact of any chromium (VI) that may form during the tanning process have led to increased research into more efficient wet white methods. The conditions present in bogs, including highly acidic water, low temperature, and a lack of oxygen, combine to preserve but severely tan the skin of bog bodies . Tawing is a method that uses alum and other aluminium salts , generally in conjunction with binders such as egg yolk, flour, or other salts. The hide

3233-418: The use of pentachlorophenol and mercury -based biocides and their derivatives was forbidden. After soaking, the hides are treated with milk of lime (a basic agent) typically supplemented by "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as sodium sulfide , cyanides , amines , etc. This: The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid cystine , which

3294-461: The vice president of the "Third National Bank of Buffalo", and was on the boards of "Merchant Bank of Buffalo", "The German Bank of Buffalo" and " Farmer and Merchant's National Bank ." In 1879, Schoellkopf started the "Schoellkopf Chemical and Dye Company" for his two sons. In 1882, he was president of Buffalo's Board of Trade. In the 1880s and 1890s, he served as a trustee for the Bank of Niagara and

3355-419: Was a fermentative process that relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons. Historically the actual tanning process used vegetable tanning. In some variations of the process, cedar oil , alum , or tannin was applied to the skin as a tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent. Following

3416-533: Was being carried out by the inhabitants of Mehrgarh in Pakistan between 7000 and 3300 BCE. Around 2500 BCE , the Sumerians began using leather, affixed by copper studs , on chariot wheels . The process of tanning was also used for boats and fishing vessels: ropes, nets, and sails were tanned using tree bark. Formerly, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to

3477-555: Was demolished in 1962 as part of Robert Moses 's work to beautify the American side of the Falls. The production capacity lost by the 1956 collapse was replaced by the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant , which was commissioned in 1961. The only permanently extant part of the Schoellkopf site is the stone wall (known as Power Station No. 3), which was built during beautification efforts in 1908–10. That wall

3538-515: Was estimated at $ 100m. One worker, a machinist named Richard Draper, was killed by falling debris. The forty other workers in the plant survived, though five of them were hospitalized. The remains of the plant either toppled into the gorge or were razed soon after. Station 3A was damaged but remained in operation at reduced volume until 1961. The collapse led to the passage of the Niagara Redevelopment Act in 1957. Station No. 3a

3599-675: Was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in February 2013. Depending on the seasonal flow of the River, it is sometimes possible to see the twisted steel girders and even a generator turbine that fell into the river. [REDACTED] Media related to Schoellkopf Power Station at Wikimedia Commons Jacob F. Schoellkopf Jacob F. Schoellkopf was born on November 15, 1819, in Kirchheim Unter Teck ,

3660-413: Was president of the company at the time of his death, after which each son found a place in Schoellkopf's various business ventures. The Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manufacturing Company was later shortened to "The Hydraulic Power Company," and during World War I , the company was consolidated with the Niagara Falls Power Company , owned by Edward Dean Adams , under the latter name, but with

3721-424: Was removed by soaking the skin in urine , painting it with an alkaline lime mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in a salt solution. After the hair was loosened, the tanners scraped it off with a knife. Once the hair was removed, the tanners would " bate " (soften) the material by pounding dung into the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating

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