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83-533: Originally the chief magistrates, the consuls , appointed all new senators. They also had the power to remove individuals from the Senate. Around the year 318 BC, the " Ovinian Plebiscite " ( plebiscitum Ovinium ) gave this power to another Roman magistrate, the censor , who retained this power until the end of the Roman Republic. This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to

166-403: A patrician was of equal seniority as a plebeian , the patrician would always speak first. A senator could make a brief statement, discuss the matter in detail, or talk about an unrelated topic. All senators had to speak before a vote could be held, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall, a senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster or diem consumere ) if they could keep

249-529: A building of religious significance, such as the Curia Hostilia . The ethical requirements of senators were significant. Senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract without legal approval. They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce without legal approval, and they could not leave Italy without permission from the Senate. In addition, since they were not paid, individuals usually sought to become

332-632: A citizen to become a senator if they had been convicted of a criminal offense. Many of these laws were enacted in the last century of the Republic, as public corruption began reaching unprecedented levels. Meetings usually began at dawn, although occasionally certain events (such as festivals) might delay the beginning of a meeting. A magistrate who wished to summon the Senate had to issue a compulsory order (a cogere ), and senators could be punished if they failed to appear without reasonable cause. In 44 BC for example, consul Mark Antony threatened to demolish

415-434: A consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally. Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestor who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In

498-531: A discussion by referring an issue to the senators, who would discuss the issue, one at a time, by order of seniority, with the first to speak, the most senior senator, known as the princeps senatus (leader of the Senate), who was then followed by ex-consuls ( consulares ), and then the praetors and ex-praetors ( praetorii ). This continued, until the most junior senators had spoken. Senators who had held magisterial office always spoke before those who had not, and if

581-407: A large volume of often unrelated material. Laws were also enacted to strengthen the requirement that three days pass between the proposal of a bill, and the vote on that bill. During his term as dictator , Julius Caesar enacted laws that required the publication of Senate resolutions. This publication, called the acta diurna , or "daily proceedings", was meant to increase transparency and minimize

664-413: A major role in a debate, and, in part because all senators had an absolute right to free speech, any senator could respond at any point if he was attacked personally. Once debates were underway, they were usually difficult for the presiding magistrate to control. The presiding magistrate typically only regained some control once the debating had ended, and a vote was about to be taken. In the later years of

747-674: A part of the rite of proclamation of a new emperor from Justin II (r. 565–578) on, and is last attested in the proclamation of the future Constans II (r. 641–668) as consul in 632. In the late 9th century, Emperor Leo the Wise (r. 886–912) finally abolished the office in Novel 94 of his Basilika . By that time, the Greek titles for consul and ex-consul, " hypatos " and " apo hypaton ", had been transformed to relatively lowly honorary dignities. In

830-517: A senator only if they were independently wealthy. The censors were the magistrates who enforced the ethical standards of the Senate. Whenever a censor punished a senator, they had to allege some specific failing. Possible reasons for punishing a member included corruption, abuse of capital punishment, or the disregard of a colleague's veto, constitutional precedent, or the auspices. Senators who failed to obey various laws could also be punished. While punishment could include impeachment (expulsion) from

913-475: A sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by the highest state officials. Consuls also read auguries , an essential religious ritual, before leading armies into the field. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. They were elected by the comitia centuriata , which also elected praetors and censors . However, they formally assumed powers only after

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996-458: A war meeting) at the Temple of Bellona . In addition, the Senate operated while under various religious restrictions. For example, before any meeting could begin, a sacrifice to the gods was made, and a search for divine omens (the auspices ) was taken. The auspices were taken in order to determine whether that particular Senate meeting held favor with the gods. The Senate was only allowed to meet in

1079-633: Is directly derived from the customs of the Roman Republic. Equivalent to the consuls of ancient Rome, the Captains Regent serve as dual leaders of the country. They are however not heads of government, but only heads of state without executive power. According to Roman tradition, after the expulsion of the last king, Tarquin Superbus , the powers and authority of the king were given to the newly instituted consulship. Originally, consuls were called praetors ("leader"), referring to their duties as

1162-506: The Second Celtiberian War , from 153 BC onwards the consuls took office on 1 January. The practice of dating years ab urbe condita (from the supposed foundation date of Rome) was less frequently used. In Latin, the ablative absolute construction is frequently used to express the date, such as " M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus ", translated literally as "With Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pupius Piso (being)

1245-546: The censor , which was reserved for former consuls. Each year, the Centuriate Assembly elected two consuls to serve jointly for a one-year term. The consuls alternated each month holding fasces (taking turns leading) when both were in Rome. A consul's imperium (military power) extended over Rome and all its provinces . Having two consuls created a check on the power of any one individual, in accordance with

1328-542: The executive power of the state and headed the government of the Republic. Initially, the consuls held vast executive and judicial power. In the gradual development of the Roman legal system, however, some important functions were detached from the consulship and assigned to new officers. Thus, in 443 BC, the responsibility to conduct the Census was taken from the consuls and given to the censors . The second function taken from

1411-532: The head of government , and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the tribune of the plebs , were subordinate to them, but retained independence of office. The internal machinery of the Republic was under the consuls' supervision. In order to allow the consuls greater authority in executing laws, the consuls had the right of summons and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgement. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates. As part of their executive functions,

1494-550: The senatus consultum , because the senatus consultum had its authority based in precedent, and not in law. A senatus consultum , however, could serve to interpret a law. Roman consul A consul was the highest elected public official of the Roman Republic ( c.  509 BC to 27 BC). Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the cursus honorum —an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired—after that of

1577-434: The urban praetor . By the late Republic, another type of magistrate, a plebeian tribune , would sometimes preside. While in session, the Senate had the power to act on its own, and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech (the verba fecit ), which was usually brief, but was sometimes a lengthy oration. The presiding magistrate would then begin

1660-401: The 3rd century onwards. However, the imperial consuls maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate. They could also administer matters of justice, and organize games ( ludi ) and all public solemnities at their own expense. Roman dates were customarily kept according to the names of the two consuls who took office that year, much like a regnal year in a monarchy. For instance,

1743-491: The 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded by the first decades of the 4th century. One of the reforms of Constantine I (r. 306–337) was to assign one of the consuls to the city of Rome , and the other to Constantinople . Therefore, when the Empire was divided into two halves on the death of Theodosius I (r. 379–395),

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1826-405: The Republic, attempts were made by the aristocracy to limit the increasing level of chaos associated with the obstructive tendencies and democratic impulses of some of the senators. Laws were enacted to prevent the inclusion of extraneous material in bills before the Senate. Other laws were enacted to outlaw the so-called omnibus bills , which are bills, usually enacted by a single vote, that contain

1909-410: The Senate and foreign states. The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. The consuls served as president of the Senate, one at a time, alternating every month. They could also summon any of the three Roman assemblies (Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul

1992-420: The Senate might wish to meet with an individual, such as a foreign ambassador, whom they did not wish to allow inside the city. At the beginning of the year, the first Senate meeting always took place at the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus . Other venues could include the Temple of Fides or the Temple of Concord , or, if the meeting was outside of the formal boundary of the city, at the Temple of Apollo or (if

2075-405: The Senate's selections. The emperor did not assume the consulship of every year of his reign, but did nominate himself multiple times; Augustus was consul 13 times, Domitian 17, and Theodosius II 18. The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process, and the allocation of this office to homines novi tended, over time, to devalue the office. However, the high regard placed upon

2158-477: The Senate, often a punishment was less severe than outright expulsion. While the standard was high for expelling a member from the Senate, it was easier to deny a citizen the right to join the Senate. Various moral failings could result in one not being allowed to join the Senate, including bankruptcy, prostitution, or a prior history of having been a gladiator. One law (the Lex repetundarum of 123 BC) made it illegal for

2241-402: The Senate. Thus, after this point in time, election to magisterial office resulted in automatic Senate membership. The appointment was for life, although the censor could impeach any senator. The Senate directed the magistrates, especially the consuls, in their prosecution of military conflicts. The Senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome. This was especially

2324-497: The appointment of a dictator . The last ordinary dictator, however, was appointed in 202 BC. After 202 BC, the Senate responded to emergencies by passing the senatus consultum ultimum ("Ultimate Decree of the Senate"), which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law. The rules and procedures of the Roman Senate were both complex and ancient. Many of these rules and procedures originated in

2407-401: The axes from the fasces to show that a citizen could not be executed without a trial. Upon entering the comitia centuriata , the lictors would lower the fasces to show that the powers of the consuls derive from the people. Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far more extensive in their role as commanders-in-chief of all Roman legions . It was in this function that

2490-458: The campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to be granted a triumph . The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as Scipio Africanus was accused by Cato in 205 BC). Abuse of power by consuls

2573-425: The case with regard to its management of state finances, as only it could authorize the disbursal of public monies from the treasury. In addition, the Senate passed decrees called senatus consulta , which were official "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate. While technically these decrees did not have to be obeyed, in practice, they usually were. During an emergency, the Senate (and only the Senate) could authorize

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2656-410: The celebrations attending it—above all the chariot races —had come to involve considerable expense; part of the expense had to be covered by the state. At times the consulship was given to teenagers or even children, as in the cases of Varronianus , Valentinianus Galates , Olybrius Junior , and the children of the emperor. In the 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparsely given, until it

2739-496: The chief military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of consul became commonly used. Ancient writers usually derive the title consul from the Latin verb consulere , "to take counsel", but this is most likely a later gloss of the term, which probably derives—in view of the joint nature of the office—from con- and sal- , "get together" or from con- and sell-/sedl- , "sit down together with" or "next to". In Greek ,

2822-430: The consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. It is possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus , came from a plebeian family. Another possible explanation is that during the 5th-century social struggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolized by a patrician elite. During times of war, the primary qualification for consul

2905-474: The consuls was subordinate to the dictator. After Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC with the establishment of the Principate , the consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities. Though still officially the highest office of the state, they were merely a symbol of Rome's republican heritage. One of the two consular positions was often occupied by emperors themselves, especially from

2988-439: The consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the assemblies . Sometimes, in great emergencies, they might act on their own authority and responsibility. The consuls also served as the chief diplomats of the Roman state. Before any foreign ambassadors reached the Senate, they met with the consuls. The consul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and they alone negotiated between

3071-523: The consuls were vested with full imperium . When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls conducted the levy in the Campus Martius . Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provided by Rome's allies. Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however,

3154-457: The consuls", with 'being' implied, as it appears in Caesar's De Bello Gallico . Consular Dating Key In Roman inscriptions, the word consul was abbreviated cos . The disappearance of the ⟨N⟩ was based on the classical Latin pronunciation of the word as /kõːsul/ or [ko:sul] since an /n/ sound before a fricative was omitted or solely nasalized the previous vowel instead. The word

3237-446: The consulship and the office of rex sacrorum . While the rex sacrorum inherited the kings' position as royal priest and various religious functions were handed off to the pontiffs , the consuls were given the remaining civil and military responsibilities. To prevent abuse of the kingly power, this authority was shared by two consuls, each of whom could veto the other's actions, with short annual terms. The consuls were invested with

3320-412: The consulship was their judicial power . Their position as chief judges was transferred to the praetors in 366 BC. After this time, the consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate. For the most part, power was divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the consuls were in the pomerium (the city of Rome), they were at

3403-458: The debate going until nightfall. It is known, for example, that the senator Cato the Younger once filibustered in an attempt to prevent the Senate from granting Julius Caesar a law that would have given land to the veterans of Pompey . Senators had several ways in which they could influence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. When a presiding magistrate was proposing a motion, for example,

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3486-519: The early years of the Republic, Rome's enemies were located in central Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became more lengthy. Rome was a warlike society and very seldom did not wage war. So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after

3569-438: The early years of the Republic, and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of mos maiorum ("customs of the ancestors"). While Senate meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium ), no meeting could take place more than a mile outside of the pomerium . Senate meetings might take place outside of the formal boundary of the city for several reasons. For example,

3652-463: The emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls—although on occasion an emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. In the Western Empire , some Eastern consuls were never recognized by the emperor, who became a puppet of powerful generals such as Stilicho . The consulship, bereft of any real power, continued to be a great honor, but

3735-436: The end of his consulship. Transferring his consular imperium to proconsular imperium , the consul would become a proconsul and governor of one (or several) of Rome's many provinces. As a proconsul, his imperium was limited to only a specified province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular imperium in any other province was illegal. Also, a proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term

3818-412: The end of the 3rd century, much had changed. The loss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions, meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls. This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it

3901-635: The equestrian order (Latin equites ) as jurors in courts overseeing the senatorial class to prevent corruption abroad. Equites who gained tax contracts or presided over courts could not, unlike senators, be prosecuted for extortion. The law was extremely unpopular in the Senate since it subjected the senatorial class to the inferior equestrian. It was believed to be part of Gaius Gracchus ' measures, even though it did not carry his name, suggesting that Gaius carried his chief judicial act in another tribune's name. Cicero implies in his first Verrine Oration that

3984-429: The house of the former consul Cicero for this very reason. The Senate meetings were technically public because the doors were usually left open, which allowed people to look in, but only senators could speak. The Senate was directed by a presiding magistrate, who was usually either a consul (the highest-ranking magistrate) or, if the consul was unavailable, a Praetor (the second-highest ranking magistrate), usually

4067-407: The motion could be passed. In general, the plebeian tribune had to physically be present at the Senate meeting, otherwise his physical threat of interposing his person had no meaning. Ultimately, the plebeian tribune's veto was based in a promise of physical force. Once a vote occurred, and a measure passed, he could do nothing, since his promise to physically interpose his person against the senators

4150-454: The office's duties every month and could act without direct interference. In the next month, the consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the consular term. Another point which acted as a check against consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office. There were also three other restrictions on consular power. Their term in office

4233-463: The ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving

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4316-463: The potential for abuse. This publication was posted in the Roman Forum , and then sent by messengers throughout the provinces. When it was time to call a vote, the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals (in whatever order) he wished, and every vote was between a proposal and its negative. Quorums were required for votes to be held, and it is known that in 67 BC the size of a quorum

4399-430: The proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome. It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others. Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, as consuls, even without regard to the age requirements. Caligula once said that he would appoint his horse Incitatus consul, which

4482-402: The province of senators—the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor. All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by the final years of

4565-551: The purposes of the consular elections, there came to be just a single "assembly of the people" which elected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps. The imperial consulate during the Principate (until the 3rd century) was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration—only former consuls could become consular legates,

4648-443: The ratification of their election in the older comitia curiata , which granted the consuls their imperium by enacting a law, the lex curiata de imperio . If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removed from office, another would be elected by the comitia centuriata to serve the remainder of the term as consul suffectus ("suffect consul"). A consul elected to start

4731-653: The republican belief that the powers of the former kings of Rome should be spread out into multiple offices. To that end, each consul could veto the actions of the other consul. After the establishment of the Empire (27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme authority. The practice of dual leaders ( diarchy ) continues to this day in San Marino and

4814-407: The sacrosanctity of his person" (or intercessio ) if the Senate did not comply. If the Senate did not comply, he could physically prevent the Senate from acting, and any resistance could be criminally prosecuted as constituting a violation of his sacrosanctity. If the vetoed motion was proposed the next day, and the plebeian tribune who had vetoed it the day before was not present to interpose himself,

4897-545: The same time as that for the ordinary consuls. During reigns of the Flavian and Antonine emperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after a period of four months, and the elections were moved to 12 January of the year in which they were to hold office. Election of the consuls were transferred to the Senate during the Flavian or Antonine periods, although through to the 3rd century, the people were still called on to ratify

4980-426: The senators could call "consult" ( consule ), which required the magistrate to ask for the opinions of the senators. Any senator could demand a quorum call (with the cry of numera ), which required a count of the senators present. Like modern quorum calls, this was usually a delaying tactic. Senators could also demand that a motion be divided into smaller motions. Acts such as applause, booing, or heckling often played

5063-442: The state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned. Consequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still relatively republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break-away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins. By

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5146-486: The title was originally rendered as στρατηγὸς ὕπατος , strategos hypatos ("the supreme general"), and later simply as ὕπατος ( hypatos ). The consulship was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC, when the consulship was supposedly replaced with a board of consular tribunes , which

5229-577: The west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowed upon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to Charles Martel , although he refused it. About 853, Alfred the Great , then a child aged four or five, was made a Roman consul by the Pope. Traditionally, after the expulsion of the kings, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices:

5312-447: The year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar". The date the consuls took office varied: from 222 BC to 153 BC they took office 15 March, and due to

5395-563: The year—called a consul ordinarius ("ordinary consul")—held more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls (see consular dating ). According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians and only in 367 BC did plebeians win the right to stand for this supreme office, when the Licinio-Sextian rogations provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius ,

5478-461: Was allowed to lapse under Justinian I (r. 527–565): the western consulship lapsed in 534, with Decius Paulinus the last holder, and the consulship of the East in 541, with Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius . Consular dating had already been abolished in 537, when Justinian introduced dating by the emperor's regnal year and the indiction . In the eastern court, the appointment to consulship became

5561-404: Was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger, without the significant political careers behind them that was normal previously. As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just

5644-412: Was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years. In times of crisis, when Rome's territory was in immediate danger, a dictator was appointed by the consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate. While the dictator held office, the imperium of

5727-500: Was elected the following year. Nevertheless, the office remained largely in the hands of a few families, as only about fifteen novi homines ("new men" with no consular background) were elected to the consulship until the election of Cicero in 63 BC. Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the early Republic (see Conflict of the Orders ), noting for instance that about thirty percent of

5810-453: Was elected whenever the military needs of the state were significant enough to warrant the election of more than the usual two consuls. These remained in place until the office was abolished in 367 BC and the consulship was reintroduced. Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administrative, legislative, and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as

5893-571: Was later changed to 32 during the Empire. Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a proconsul , the Roman governor of one of the senatorial provinces . It would not be uncommon for the patrician consuls of the early Republic to intersperse public office with agricultural labor. In Cicero's words: in agris erant tum senatores, id est senes : 'In those days senators—that is, seniors—would live on their farms'. This practice

5976-420: Was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the cursus honorum , the sequence of offices pursued by the Roman who chose to pursue a political career. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla regulated the cursus by law, the minimum age of election to consul became 43 or 42 years of age. This age requirement

6059-455: Was no veto, and the matter was of a significant nature, there was usually a physical division of the house, where senators voted by taking a place on either side of the chamber. Any motion that had the support of the Senate but was vetoed was recorded in the annals as a senatus auctoritas , while any motion that was passed and not vetoed was recorded as a senatus consultum . After the vote, each senatus consultum and each senatus auctoritas

6142-534: Was now meaningless. In addition, during a couple of instances between the end of the Second Punic War in 201 BC and the beginning of the Social War in 91 BC, although they had no legal power to do so, several Consuls were known to have vetoed acts of the Senate. Ultimately, if there was no veto, and the matter was of minor importance, it could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands. If there

6225-401: Was obsolete by the 2nd century. Although throughout the early years of the Principate the consuls were still formally elected by the comitia centuriata , they were de facto nominated by the princeps . As the years progressed, the distinction between the comitia centuriata and the comitia populi tributa (which elected the lower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared, and so for

6308-466: Was prevented with each consul given the power to veto his colleague consul. Therefore, except in the provinces as commanders-in-chief where each consul's power was supreme, the consuls could only act not against each other's determined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague, which, if successful, would see the sentence overturned. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually perform

6391-488: Was probably a joke intended to belittle the Senate's authority. The need for a pool of men to fill the consular positions forced Augustus to remodel the suffect consulate, allowing more than the two elected for the ordinary consulate. During the reigns of the Julio-Claudians, the ordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished their office mid-year, with the election for the suffect consuls occurring at

6474-414: Was set at 200 senators (by the lex Cornelia de privilegiis ). At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motion could be vetoed. Usually, vetoes were handed down by plebeian tribunes. If the Senate proposed a bill that the plebeian tribune (the magistrate who was the chief representative of the people) did not agree with, he issued a veto , which was backed by the promise to literally "interpose

6557-412: Was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between consulships. After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Senate to a province to administer as governor . The provinces to which each consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before

6640-475: Was sometimes spelled cosol in antiquity. Particularly in the imperial era, additional consulships after the first were noted by a trailing Roman numeral : twice consul was abbreviated cos ii , thrice consul cos iii , four times consul cos iiii or iv , etc. For a complete list of Roman consuls, see: Lex Acilia repetundarum The Lex Acilia Repetundarum was a law established in ancient Rome in 123 BC. It provides for members of

6723-467: Was stamped on the document, to verify that the motion had been approved by the Senate. The document was then deposited in the temple that housed the Treasury (the aerarium ). While a senatus auctoritas (vetoed Senate motion) had no legal value, it did serve to show the opinion of the Senate. If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law ( lex ) that was passed by a Roman Assembly , the law overrode

6806-404: Was transcribed into a final document by the presiding magistrate. This document included the name of the presiding magistrate, the place of the assembly, the dates involved, the number of senators who were present at time the motion was passed, the names of witnesses to the drafting of the motion, and the substance of the act. In addition, if the motion was a senatus consultum , a capital letter "C"

6889-414: Was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the praetor urbanus . Each consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve lictors , who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguards. Each lictor held a fasces , a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The fasces symbolized the military power, or imperium . When inside the pomerium , the lictors removed

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