114-778: The Śvetāmbara ( / ʃ w ɛ ˈ t ʌ m b ə r ə / ; also spelled Shwetambara , Shvetambara , Svetambara or Swetambara ) is one of the two main branches of Jainism , the other being the Digambara . Śvetāmbara in Sanskrit means "white-clad", and refers to its ascetics ' practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart from the Digambara or "sky-clad" Jains whose ascetic practitioners go nude. Śvetāmbaras do not believe that ascetics must practice nudity. The Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards Jain nuns, their legends and
228-489: A Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status". There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual
342-567: A Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana . The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ( punya ). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in
456-485: A Jain temple, placing objects of knowledge (such as pen, pencil, paper, books etc.) on a platform and venerating the object with Vāsakṣepa (sandalwood powder) and reciting hymns venerating the demi-goddess Saraswati . In Jainism , the eternal knowledge of the road to moksha is recorded in the word of the tirthankaras and that is known as jinvāṇī . This is what Saraswati represents. Therefore, in Jainism , she
570-424: A body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves. Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of
684-411: A duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined
798-542: A form of fasting in which no oil, dairy products, and spices are consumed. This form of fasting is believed to improve control over the sense of taste. They also worship the Siddhachakra during these 9 days. Spiritual practices are intensified during these days just as during the Paryuṣaṇa . One of the most popular legends associated with this festival is of Śrīpāla and Mayaṇasundarī . Mahavir Janma Kalyanak falls on
912-514: A householder must take in order to bind minimum karma . These 12 vows are also taken by lay followers of the Digambara sect as well as the aniconic offshoots of the Śvetāmbara sect. They are one of the very few points that both the sects agree upon. They summarize almost all duties a householder must perform as part of the Jain sangha . They are classified into 3 categories. Following is a list of
1026-579: A period extending more than 1 month is not permitted. The reason for that is to regulate possession. A mendicant staying at one place for longer periods of time might begin getting attached to the place and such attachments must be avoided and if developed, given up. However, during the 4 months of the chaturmasya , rains are expected and there is an increase in the number of insects on ground. Mendicants must not step on insects to practice ahimsa and therefore, they are required to stay at one place for those 4 months. Stepping on grass and on water or wet ground
1140-471: A predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras , which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and
1254-406: A result of a rebellion by a monk named Sivabhuti , who was the disciple of Arya Krishnasuri. This account is found in 5th century Śvetāmbara text Viśeśāvaśyaka Bhaśya written by Jinabhadra . This is also the earliest formal recognition of the schism between the two sects. Śvetāmbaras have several p attavalis that mention the historical lineage of their chief monks ( a charya ) beginning with
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#17327795976071368-528: A social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies. Jainism considers meditation ( dhyana ) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini , Sāmāyika
1482-411: A stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa , tapasya or vrata , and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan , eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of
1596-665: A universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there
1710-400: Is anekāntavāda , from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically " non -oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya , "partial expression of
1824-478: Is ganivarya who are spiritual heads of a small sub-section of monks in a samudaay . Other classes of monks such as panyaas and upapanyaas also exist. Śvetāmbara monks also perform other miscellaneous functions and duties. Some of them are as described below: - The Śvetāmbara canon defines some guidelines and duties for lay followers ( śrāvakas and śrāvikās ) of Jainism to fulfill. Some of them are summarized as follows: - Scriptures describe 12 vows that
1938-440: Is sallekhana , a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially
2052-1022: Is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying
2166-985: Is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when
2280-476: Is a list of the 45 canonical scriptures followed by the Śvetāmbaras: - The above list makes it 46, but the last a ngā Driśtivāda is considered to be lost by both the sects. It was this scripture that contained the 14 purvas (14 scriptures containing extensive knowledge) of Jainism . All texts or pieces of literature written by Śvetāmbara monks, except the ones stated above are considered to be non-canonical in nature. Following are some popular examples. However,
2394-478: Is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint). The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata . The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for
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#17327795976072508-421: Is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation). It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike
2622-513: Is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions
2736-518: Is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra , going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form
2850-540: Is because it no longer remains 'free of faults' since mendicants become a medium of violence as well as possession here. This is discussed in the Ācārāṅga Sūtra at length. Monks of the Śvetāmbara sect are categorized among the classes as described in the Namokar Mantra . Each newly initiated monk is a sadhu (the fifth class as described in the fifth line of the Namokar Mantra ). After attaining sufficient spiritual and scriptural knowledge along with experience of
2964-543: Is called devapuja , and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar , completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of
3078-467: Is celebrated on the 11th day of the bright fortnight of the Maargashirsha month of the lunar calendar . Śvetāmbara legends say that if a devotee performs penance staying mum on this day every year for a period of 11 years and 11 months achieves moksha . The word ' maun ' means silence. The most prominent of the penances on this day is to not speak and communicate for the entire day, until
3192-652: Is confirmed by the ancient Buddhist texts that discuss Jain monastic life). Mahāvīra taught Five vows. The Digambara sect disagrees with the Śvetāmbara interpretations, and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings. However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught by Mahavira . The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believe Parshvanatha taught one vow less (the Four vows except Brahmacharya ) than Mahavira . However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in
3306-426: Is considered as "faith in the tattvas ". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge ( pramana ). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception ( pratyaksa ), inference ( anumana ) and testimony ( sabda or
3420-446: Is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata . Monks observe
3534-429: Is followed wherein the devotees bid to get a chance at changing the flag. The highest bidder performs devotional puja according to a ritual described in the scriptures and changes the dhvaj (flag) hoisted on the śikhara . Every Jain temple has a different day for the ceremony and it is celebrated on the said temple's anniversary. A svāmi-vātsalya (community lunch) is organized as part of the ceremony. A minority of
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3648-483: Is given to them and what comes under permitted possessions (the objects listed earlier). They are not permitted to take anything that is not given to them by the owner of the said object. Unlike ascetics of the Digambara sect, ascetics of the Śvetāmbara sect beg for alms from multiple households as the Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes how begging for alms for an entire meal from a single household does not fall under fault-free food that Jain monks must consume as it might aggrieve
3762-466: Is known as atthai ). It is during these 8 days that monks and nuns read the holy canonical scripture - Kalpa Sūtra . Most of the reading is done in private, except the chapter that describes the birth of Mahavira , which is traditionally read and celebrated publicly on the 5th of the 8 days. The 8th day is known as samvatsari and is considered to be one of the holiest days by Śvetāmbara lay followers, who perform pratikramana and seek forgiveness for
3876-581: Is left of Mahavira 's teachings. Historically, the knowledge of these scriptures was passed down orally in a preceptor-disciple system ( guru-shishya parampara ). However, the memory of the monks weakened in the 12-year long famine as described in the Kalpa Sūtra . As a result, most of the knowledge of the canonical scriptures was lost. The remaining canon was codified at the Great Council of Vallabhi under leadership of Devardhigani Kshamashramana , which
3990-481: Is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa. The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic
4104-401: Is not an essential part as per scriptures, lay followers are always encouraged to attend them regularly to learn principles of Jainism. A formal procedure of greeting the preceptor by reciting 2 ancient Prakrit prayers - Icchakāra Sutra and Abbhuthio Sutra and 4 Khamāsamaṉas in a particular sequence is known as Guruvandan . The practice of Guruvandan is only performed by householders of
4218-477: Is not permitted due to their tendency to have life. Most mendicants give religious sermons and spread the word of Jainism wherever they wander. Usually, nowadays, several Jain temples have spaces that are used for general purposes that mendicants may use after obtaining permission from the temple management. This is particularly important as if the space was constructed for the purpose of housing mendicants, even temporarily, it becomes unfit for use by mendicants. That
4332-563: Is not worshipped as she is in Hinduism , but as the word of the tirthankaras . Jainism endorses the existence of 5 types of knowledge — Mati Jñāna , Śrut Jñāna , Avadhi Jñāna , Manaḥparyaya Jñāna , Kevala Jñāna . All these forms of knowledge are highly venerated and worshipped in the Śvetāmbara sect. Lay followers of the Śvetāmbara sect also perform penance and fast to celebrate the day. Most followers, if they do not perform fasts, refrain from consuming food after sunset. This festival
4446-448: Is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas , in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote
4560-458: Is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha . The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date ( Kartika Amavasya ). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across
4674-422: Is performed and the ritual for which include 18 Abhiṣeka which is a ritualistic bathing of the idols with 18 excellent objects of high fragrance and devotional value. The Chaturvidha Sangha has 4 pillars and śrāvakas and śrāvikās (lay followers) derive their knowledge of the religion and its practices from the other two pillars - mendicants (monks and nuns). Vyākhyāna refers to the religious sermons that
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4788-603: Is referred to as the gacchadhipati of the said gaccha . A gacchadhipati is an acharya . Each of Kharata Gaccha , Achal Gaccha , and Parshvachandra Gaccha have one gacchadhipati each. However, Tapa Gaccha has 21 gacchadhipatis as it is further sub-divided into various samudaays (smaller sections of a gaccha ). Some of the major samudaays of the Tapa Gaccha are - Buddhisagarsuri Samudaay , Sagaranand (or Anandsagar) Samudaay , Kalapurnasuri Samudaay , Bhuvanbhanusuri Samudaay etc. Another class of monks
4902-429: Is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about
5016-418: Is the largest, with the most monks and followers. The murtipujaka sect has had various eminent monks, including, but not limited to Vimalsuri , Hemachandra , Hiravijaya , Devardhigani Kshamashraman , Yashovijaya , Anandghan , Siddhasena , and Manatunga . Śvetāmbara literature can be classified into two major categories — canonical and non-canonical. Canonical scriptures state the Jain cosmology and
5130-585: Is the oldest sub-tradition of the Śvetāmbaras and all other aniconic sects have emerged in and after the 14th century. The Śvetāmbara murtipujaka (idol-worshipping) sect is the largest of all sects and sub-sects of Jainism and has the most number of followers as well as monks. To manage the large following, gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. 84 gacchas have come into existence till date and most of them are extinct now. Only 4 survive today - Tapa Gaccha , Kharatara Gaccha , Parshvachandra Gaccha , and Achal Gaccha. Of these, Tapa Gaccha
5244-701: Is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta . The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha 's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it
5358-531: The Jinas . In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha , Neminatha and Rishabhanatha . Among the non- tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras. The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember
5472-611: The Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas , the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare. The second main principle of Jainism
5586-891: The Jain philosophy as well as the foundational aspects of understanding Jainism . They also govern the conduct of monks, nuns, as well as the laity. Non-canonical scriptures include, but are not limited to commentaries on canonical scriptures, biographies of the Śalākāpuruṣas (as in Hemachandra's Trisasti-shalakapurusa-caritra ), Jain mythology , treatise and extensions of the canonical scriptures, lists of rare and uncommon words and knowledge base and dictionaries for Ardhamagadhi Prakrit , Maharashtri Prakrit , and Sanskrit , devotional hymns ( stavan, stuti, sajjhay, or mantra ), and miscellaneous scriptures. The Śvetāmbara canon consists of 45 scriptures, mostly written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit . They are considered to be what
5700-496: The Palitana temples , which are otherwise inaccessible on other days. The shrines that this walk takes a devotee through can be summarized as follows: - It is a generic name given to various observances and celebrations at different Jain temples. It refers to the changing of the flag that is hoisted at the top of a Jain temple's śikhara (topmost part of the structure) and is celebrated annually at every Jain temple. A common ritual
5814-691: The Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras . The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms. The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar . This typically falls in August or September of
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#17327795976075928-414: The ajiva (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas : the sentient ( jiva or living),
6042-458: The nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra , is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally. Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from
6156-473: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra . Jainism Jainism ( / ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / JAY -niz-əm ), also known as Jain Dharma , is an Indian religion . Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankara s (supreme preachers of Dharma ), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva , whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago,
6270-445: The 12 vows of a householder: - 6 essential observances have been considered necessary for a lay follower to practice regularly in both the sects. However, the observances are different in each sect. Mendicants also observe these regularly and it is believed that these essential observances help one maintain discipline as well as bind least and shed most karma . Following are the 6 essential observances of śrāvakas and śrāvikās of
6384-534: The 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada , Europe , and the United States . Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana , Ashtanika , Mahavir Janma Kalyanak , Akshaya Tritiya , and Dipawali . Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating
6498-419: The 24th Tirthankara Mahavira . The most popular of the pattavalis is the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra , a canonical scripture of the Śvetāmbaras. According to the lineage mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra , Sthulabhadra was, unequivocally, the successor of Bhadrabāhu . Śvetāmbaras also believe that both of them were white-clad monks. These beliefs are completely rejected by the Digambara sect. To manage
6612-611: The 7th day of the Navpad Oli that occurs during the Chaitra month. Although Digambaras believe in the legend of Śrīpāla and Mayaṇasundarī , they do not perform Ayambil and their practices are vastly different from the Śvetāmbaras. It is celebrated on the 5th day of the bright fortnight of the Kārtika month of the lunar calendar . This festival is celebrated to worship Samyak Jñāna (right knowledge). Rituals include visiting
6726-522: The Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras , while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing
6840-478: The Jain text Tattvartha sūtra , the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities ( Guṇa ): consciousness ( chaitanya , the most important), bliss ( sukha ) and vibrational energy ( virya ). It further claims
6954-463: The Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, sangh , has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni ), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika ), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday , in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged
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#17327795976077068-456: The body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without
7182-618: The complete list is inexhaustive as the Śvetāmbara sect has always had more monks than the Digambara sect: - There are vast differences between the practices of the Śvetāmbaras and the Digambaras with some fundamental overlaps. Śvetāmbara scriptures divide the Jain Sangha into four parts and the congregation is popularly known as the chaturvidha sangha (a sangha comprising four parts). The four parts are — monks, nuns, male lay followers (also known as śrāvakas ), and female lay followers (also known as śrāvikās ). Religious practices of
7296-483: The council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism. The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda . Vimalsuri Too Many Requests If you report this error to
7410-511: The entire region of Palitana hills in a single day. The walk is 15-18km long along a hilly terrain. This walk is also known as the 6-Gau Yaatra (walk of visiting 6 villages). Devotees first ascend the hill until they reach the Ram Pol gate, and then take a different route from the usual route, which is opened only on this day every year for devotees to circumambulate around the hill. This route takes devotees through various 'hidden' regions of
7524-413: The faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas . The Sallekhana (or Santhara ) vow
7638-452: The first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī , full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after
7752-543: The five life events of the tirthankaras , including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava , Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja . The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva , which includes Jina, or other yaksas , gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati , Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi ). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual
7866-445: The flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants , studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul). The tirthankaras such as
7980-527: The founder of the Oswal community as well as Acharya Swayamprabhasuri , the founder of the Porwal community belonged to this gaccha . It was in existence until 1930s when it went extinct. Majority of the Śvetāmbaras are murtipujakas , that is they actively offer devotional puja in temples, worship before the images or idols of Tirthankaras and important Jain demi-gods and demi-goddesses. Historically, this
8094-448: The householder they accept food from. Becoming the medium for a householder's grievance is unacceptable as per a mendicant's conduct. 42 faults of food are described which a monk or a nun must assess before accepting it as alms. They may only consume food free from the 42 faults (as described in the Ācārāṅga Sūtra ) and boiled water between the period from 48 minutes after sunrise and until 48 minutes before sunset. However, monks and nuns of
8208-518: The idols. Ceremonious donation of all world possessions is performed before initiation. Upon initiation, a monk or a nun renounces all worldly possessions and relations, takes the Five Vows and tears his/her hair out. A newly-initiated monk/nun is ceremoniously given the rajoharan by their preceptor (who is always only an acharya ). Unlike as in the Digambara sect where monks and nuns are not forbidden from touching each other and lay-followers of
8322-403: The images. Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye ), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of
8436-412: The impact of Islam on Jainism, but later scholarship states that the sub-traditions arose from an internal dispute and debate on the principle Ahimsa (non-violence). The newer sub-traditions only accept 32 of the 45 scriptures of the original Śvetāmbara canon. In the 32 they have accepted, several parts have been modified and major sections of their canon is different from the original canon as followed by
8550-765: The innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul , distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to the cycle of birth and rebirth . Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization , which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation . The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to
8664-454: The insentient ( ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul ( Āsrava , which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ( Bandha ), the stoppage of karmic particles ( Saṃvara ), the wiping away of past karmic particles ( Nirjarā ), and the liberation ( Moksha ). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas , namely good karma ( Punya ) and bad karma ( Paapa ). The true insight in Jain philosophy
8778-562: The large following of the murtipujaka sect, Gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. Each gaccha has its own pattavali. One of the 84 gacchas was the Upkeśa Gaccha . While all other pattavalis (including the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra ) trace their lineage to the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira , Upkesa Gaccha ' s pattavali traces its lineage to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha . Kesiswami , one of Parshvanatha 's chief disciples, Acharya Ratnaprabhasuri ,
8892-503: The law of substance dualism , and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism . Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit . Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ( jīva ), non-sentient substance or matter ( pudgala ), the principle of motion ( dharma ), the principle of rest ( adharma ), space ( ākāśa ), and time ( kāla ). The last five are united as
9006-508: The lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar , north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. The next day of Dipawali
9120-404: The mendicants give. It is a result of these sermons that Jainism is propagated to the lay followers. Since reading scriptures without the preceptor's permission is considered to be a grave sin, lay followers (householders) derive all their knowledge of the religion and scriptures as well as their duties and responsibilities from the mendicants' v yākhyānas . As such, even though attending vyākhyānas
9234-403: The monastic life, a sadhu may be promoted to the status of an upadhyaya (the fourth class as described in the fourth line of the Namokar Mantra ). Finally, after sufficient spiritual education, a monk is promoted to the status of an acharya . Acharyas are spiritual heads of the said monastic order. Usually each of the 4 g acchas has a spiritual preceptor of the highest order and who
9348-402: The most popular ones is Snātra Pūjā which is a lengthy ritual that includes mimicking of a tirthankara's ritualistic bathing at Mount Meru by the demi-god Indra . Other popular ritualistic bathing is Śakrastava Abhiṣeka which is performed parallel to the recitation of the hymn of the same name authored by Acharya Siddhasenadiwakarsuri . Usually, regular purification of temples and icons
9462-434: The newer sub-traditions have various sub-traditions within them that do not agree on several aspects of the canon due to an open access to their canon and eventual misinterpretation. Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as: Śvetāmbaras believe that Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara , taught only Four restraints (a claim, scholars say
9576-469: The next morning. This form of penance is believed to improve control over the mind and the tongue. According to Śvetāmbara legends, a total of 150 kalyāṇakas of the panch kalyanakas of tirthankaras of the past, present, and future half cycles of time occur on this single day. Therefore, it holds high importance and auspiciousness in the Śvetāmbara sect. Most lay followers begin new ventures and worship tirthankara idols especially apart from performing
9690-471: The oldest sect of the murtipujakas . These sub-traditions are not recognized by the original Śvetāmbara sect of the idol-worshippers ( murtipujakas ), who consider that they were created as a result of a grave misinterpretation of canonical scriptures. The murtipujaka Śvetāmbaras do not allow laypersons to read scriptures as a misinterpretation of the canon is considered to be a grave sin. The later sub-traditions have made their canon openly accessible. Both
9804-503: The opposite gender, monks and nuns of the Śvetāmbara sect do not touch persons of the opposite gender (neither mendicants nor lay-followers of the opposite gender) and observe extreme celibacy all their life. Monks and nuns of the Śvetāmbara sect wear white seamless clothing and carry a rajoharan (woolen broom to clear their path of insects and small creatures), an alms bowl, a long stick, and scriptures. All monks and nuns possess only these objects. Additionally, they may only take what
9918-685: The other being Paryuṣaṇa . During this festival, Śvetāmbaras worship the 9 supreme entities, namely Arihant , Siddhā , Ācārya , Upādhyāya , Sādhu , Samyak Darśana , Samyak Jñāna , Samyak Cāritra , and Samyak Tap , one day for each of these entities. Jainism believes that these 9 entities were neither created nor can they be destroyed. It believes in the eternal existence of these 'categories' or padas that propagate dharma . Śvetāmbaras, therefore, consider this festival to be śāśvata (which means that it has existed since eternity and will continue to exist forever). Throughout these 9 days, Śvetāmbara lay followers perform Ayambil ,
10032-520: The other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which
10146-744: The penance of staying silent on this day. Several legends including that of Neminatha and Krishna and of Suvrat Shetha are associated with this day. This festival is observed on the 13th day of the bright fortnight of the Phalguna month as per the lunar calendar and is directly associated with Palitana , one of the most important pilgrimage sites for the Śvetāmbaras. Śvetāmbara legends state that Krishna's sons Pradyumna and Shyaambh, along with 8.5 crore (85 million) mendicants attained liberation from Bhadva's Dungar at Palitana hills on this day. Śvetāmbara lay followers visit Palitana temples in huge numbers on this day, every year and circumambulate
10260-565: The sins they committed in the past year by saying " Michchhāmi Dukkaḍaṃ " to the people they know. Digambaras, alternatively, celebrate the Das Lakshana, which is a 10-day long festival and has a different purpose than Paryuṣaṇa. This is a 9-day long festival that occurs twice a year, once in the Chaitra month and once in the Ashvin month of the lunar calendar . This is one of the two major celebrations as per Śvetāmbara scriptures,
10374-575: The sixth ara , the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle. Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created , and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism , but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in
10488-500: The slaughter of animals. Forgiveness I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies. — Jain festival prayer on the last day The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari . Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in
10602-461: The soul ( jiva ). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds ( urdhva loka , madhya loka , and adho loka ). Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra , rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons ( ara ), and in
10716-454: The soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas . Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul ( jiva )
10830-451: The texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons ( śrāvakas and śrāvikas ). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas , who reside mostly in India , where they numbered around 4.5 million at
10944-515: The texts they consider as important. Śvetāmbara Jain communities are currently found mainly in Gujarat , Rajasthan and coastal regions of Maharashtra . According to Jeffery D. Long , a scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, about four-fifths of all Jains in India are Śvetāmbaras. Śvetāmbaras consider themselves to be the original followers of Mahavira and that the Digambara sect emerged in 82 AD as
11058-465: The tirthankaras. Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" ( panca namaskara ) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of
11172-542: The truth of soul ( jīva ); Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas ; and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tapas (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ( moksha ). The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation). The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury)
11286-459: The truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt , or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth
11400-446: The twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha , whom historians date to the 9th century BCE , and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira , around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology . Central to understanding Jain philosophy is the concept of bhedvigyān , or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores
11514-485: The use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian . Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism , meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism
11628-406: The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to
11742-433: The violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor
11856-559: The word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra , Parvacanasara , Nandi and Anuyogadvarini . Some Jain texts add analogy ( upamana ) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna ( clairvoyance ), manah prayāya Jñāna ( telepathy ) and kevala jnana ( omniscience ). According to
11970-411: The world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying " Micchami Dukkadam " or " Khamat khamna " to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together". Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of
12084-547: The world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan , similar to those in the Hindu communities. The Jain community is divided into two major denominations , Digambara and Śvētāmbara . Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas . Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on
12198-426: The Śvetāmbara sect actively perform and promote and inspire the laity to perform fasting to obtain control over the senses. Mendicants constantly wander for 8 months of a year (except the 4 months of the chaturmasya ) on foot. The reason mendicants must wander is to regulate their senses of possession and to spread the word of Jainism . The Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes that for a mendicant, staying at one place for
12312-465: The Śvetāmbara sect differ for each section (monastics and laity) of the sangha . Right before initiation, an ascetic-to-be performs his/her final puja of the Tirthankara idols. Monks and nuns are not permitted to perform puja of the idols because they are not permitted to bath all their life and Śvetāmbara scriptures only permit a person with clean body and after bathing may perform puja of
12426-635: The Śvetāmbara sect. There are some festivals which are exclusively celebrated by the Śvetāmbara sect and are neither recognized nor celebrated by the Digambara sect. Following is a list of some of those festivals: - It is one of the most popular of the Jain festivals. It falls during the bright fortnight of the Bhadrapada month of the lunar calendar . During this 8-day long festival, lay followers intensify their spirituality and undertake rigorous fasting . Some of them also fast for all 8 days by consuming either only boiled water or nothing at all (this fast
12540-472: The Śvetāmbara sect: - The Śvetāmbara canon unequivocally endorses the worshipping of idols of tirthankaras by all sections of the Chaturvidha Sangha . The main motive behind such worshipping is not a worldly affair, but worshipping their qualities. Most Śvetāmbara lay-followers perform worshipping of idols in three main formats: - Several other forms of worshipping of the idols exist. One of
12654-440: The Śvetāmbaras are split into other traditions where either Jain temples and halls are built but puja is a minor practice, or where all construction and use of temples, images and idols is actively discouraged and avoided. These sub-traditions began around 14th-century through 18th-century and are not considered authentic by any of the major Śvetāmbara monks and scriptures. A layman who opposed devotional temples, images and idols
12768-632: Was Lonka Shah (c. 1476 CE) who is responsible for starting the Sthānakavāsī sub-tradition. Bhikshu was initiated as a Sthānakavāsī monk, but he believed that their teachings were inappropriate. As a result, he started the Terapanth sub-tradition after criticizing the Sthanakvasi sub-tradition's beliefs. Early colonial era observers and some early 20th-century Jain writers such as Malvaniya hypothesized that this movement against idol worship may be
12882-467: Was held at Vallabhi in 454 CE resulting in the 45 scriptures that govern the Śvetāmbara sect's religious practices till date. From a linguistic point of view, Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures are the oldest of all Jain literature . The Ācārāṅga Sūtra , Uttaradhyayana Sutra , and the Sthananga Sutra of the Śvetāmbara canon are considered to have been created in 5th-4th century BC. Following
12996-512: Was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At
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