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88-573: Competing European traders were generally fellow Russian traders, principally the Lebedev-Lastochkin Company . Visiting British and American ships typically paid higher rates for furs when negotiating with Alaskan Natives , which undercut the SGC trading operations. These same merchants were often the only means of supply for the scattered Russian stations, leaving the company dependent on its commercial rivals. The United American Company

176-625: A Russian naval officer. Late in 1818, Yanovsky was appointed as Chief Manager and successor to Baranov. That year Baranov departed to sail back to Russia, but he died in April 1819 and was buried at sea. Alexander Andreyevich Baranov was born in 1747 in Kargopol , in St. Petersburg Governorate of the Russian Empire . He was the son of Andrey Baranov, a lower-class merchant or mestchanin , in

264-653: A ban on segregating signs, with discriminatory actions punishable by a $ 250 fine and up to 30 days in jail. Alaska became part of the United States in 1959 upon President Dwight D. Eisenhower recognizing Alaska as the 49th state. In 1971, with the support of Alaska Native leaders such as Emil Notti , Willie Hensley , and Byron Mallott , the U.S. Congress passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which settled land and financial claims for lands and resources which

352-494: A boon to Russian/Spanish cooperation in North America. He returned to Sitka with the needed food. From there, he sailed to Siberia to begin the thousands of miles of overland travel to St. Petersburg to seek the necessary religious approvals from Russian Orthodox clergy for his marriage. During the harsh winter trek on horseback across Siberia, Rezanov became ill and died. His great dream of a joint Russian-Spanish empire of

440-406: A child returned to his or her own native village, or located elsewhere, after completing education in a Federal Indian boarding school. Specifically this meant that Alaskan Native children could no longer speak their native language, wear traditional native clothing, be amongst other natives, eat native foods, practice any native religion, ultimately resulting in the intergenerational trauma caused by

528-680: A form of taxation imposed by the Russians, was a tribute in the form of otter pelts. It was a taxation method the Russians had previously found useful in their early encounter with Indigenous communities of Siberia during the Siberian fur trade . Beaver pelts were also customary to be given to fur traders upon first contact with various communities. The Russian-American Company used military force on Indigenous families, taking them hostage until male community members produced furs for them. Otter furs on Kodiak Island and Aleutian Islands enticed

616-559: A great deal of political power in the 1920s. They protested the segregation of Alaska Natives in public areas and institutions, and also staged boycotts. Alberta Schenck (Inupiaq) staged a well-publicized protest against segregation in a movie theater in 1944. With the help of Elizabeth Peratrovich (Tlingit), the Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945 was passed, ending segregation in Alaska. In 1942, during World War II,

704-441: A number of Northern Athabaskan cultures. They are often defined by their language groups. Many Alaska Natives are enrolled in federally recognized Alaska Native tribal entities , who in turn belong to 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations , who administer land and financial claims. Ancestors of Native Alaskans or Alaska Natives migrated into the area thousands of years ago, in at least two different waves. Some are descendants of

792-436: A rock outcropping at the eastern edge of Sitka Sound. Food soon became scarce for the Russians. Baranov sent a 50-foot sailboat, under the command of his deputy Ivan Kuskov, the 2800 miles to Hawaii to get urgently needed food supplies from King Kamehameha , a long-time trading friend. Kuskov returned with the supplies in time to narrowly avert starvation of the Russians at Sitka. In 1805, Tlingit warriors attacked and massacred

880-603: A school with American children if the family has abandoned their culture. At the same time, a system was put in place to disrupt Alaskan Native families. Federal records indicate that the United States viewed official disruption to the native family unit as part of Federal Indian policy to assimilate Indian children. The Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative, for example, was directly responsible for intergenerational trauma by disrupting family ties in Alaskan native villages. An important outcome of deliberate Federal disruption to

968-540: A settlement in Yakutat Bay in 1795 for 30 serf farming families from Russia. By 1797, Baranov was two years overdue to be replaced, and he had no word of relief. That year, Baranov's Aleut mistress gave birth to their son, Antipatr. He had two more mixed-race Aleut-Russian children with his mistress, also giving them Russian names: Irina and Ekaterina. After learning that his wife in Russia had died, Baranov married

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1056-515: A tool of colonial exploitation of the indigenous people. When the Aleut revolted and won some victories, the Russians retaliated, killing many. They also destroyed the peoples' boats and hunting gear, leaving them no means of survival. The greatest mortality was caused by the Aleuts' encounters with new diseases: during the first two generations (1741/1759-1781/1799 AD) of Russian contact, 80 percent of

1144-474: A watercolor of Tlingit chief Katlian and his wife. These were the only likenesses ever made during their lifetimes of the two long-time antagonists who had finally made peace. It was painted when he was 71, six months before he died. In the Katlian painting, the chief is about age 45. He is shown with an "Allies of Russia" silver medal hanging on a light chain from his neck, and with Baranov's "Castle" fortress in

1232-710: The Alaska Native Americans . Under his leadership, schools were created and frontier communities became less isolated. During Baranov's rule, Russian Orthodox missionaries operated widely in Russian America. They translated the Bible into Tlingit and other Native languages, conducted mass in those languages, and inoculated Natives against smallpox . In 1812, Baranov established Fort Ross in California about 50 miles north of San Francisco. It

1320-740: The Ukase of 1799 , which granted a fur monopoly in Russian America to the United American Company and established the Russian-American Company . Alaskan Natives Alaska Natives (also known as Alaskan Indians , Alaskan Natives , Native Alaskans , Indigenous Alaskans , Aboriginal Alaskans or First Alaskans ) are the Indigenous peoples of Alaska and include Russian Creoles , Iñupiat , Yupik , Aleut , Eyak , Tlingit , Haida , Tsimshian , and

1408-794: The United States Supreme Court decision in Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (1998). Except for the Tsimshian, Alaska Natives no longer hold reservations but do control some lands. Under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 , Alaska Natives are reserved the right to harvest whales and other marine mammals . Four indigenous tribes in Alaska, the Shishmaref , Kivalina , Shaktoolik and Newtok tribes, are being considered

1496-495: The 1850s Russia lost much of its interest in Alaska. Alaska has many natural resources, which, including its gold, caught the attention of the United States. In 1867, the United States purchased Alaska from Russia. It did not consider the wishes of Native Alaskans or view them as citizens. The land that belonged to Alaska Natives was considered to be "open land", which could be claimed by white settlers without redress to

1584-562: The 21st century, the numerous congregations of Russian Orthodox Christians in Alaska reflect this early history, as they are generally composed mostly of Alaska Natives. Rather than hunting and harvesting marine life themselves, the Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki forced the Aleuts to do the work for them, enserfing the Aleuts. As word spread of the riches in furs to be had, competition among Russian companies increased. Catherine

1672-581: The Alaska Natives had lost to European-Americans . It provided for the establishment of thirteen Alaska Native Regional Corporations to administer those claims. Similar to the separately defined status of the Canadian Inuit and First Nations in Canada, which are recognized as distinct peoples, in the United States, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans are in some respects treated separately by

1760-696: The Alaska Natives living there. The only schools for Alaska Natives were those founded by religious missionaries . Most white settlers did not understand the sophisticated cultures the Alaska Natives had developed to live in challenging environment and considered them to be inferior to European Americans, correlating with white supremacist beliefs. The Klondike Gold Rush occurred in the 1896–1898, increasing white presence in Alaska as well as discriminatory practices. Americans imposed racial segregation and discriminatory laws (similar to Jim Crow laws ) that limited Alaska Native opportunities and participation in culture, treating them as second-class citizens . With

1848-547: The Alaskan Native family unit was the removal of children from their native villages to off-reservation Indian boarding schools alongside other Indian tribes children. The Federal Government accordingly devised artificial communities of Indian children throughout the Federal Indian boarding school system, resulting in the creation of other Indian or Alaskan Native families and extended families depending on whether

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1936-505: The Alaskan government recommended not building on permafrost or using extra layers of insulation that is used on foundation walls (EPA). Food insecurity has also created stress and health issues, families can not get enough food due to animals also relocating to get to a climate that is more suitable to them (Brubaker). Families also do not have a secure food system because their ways of storing food, underground ice cellar, are no longer frozen year long due to climate change, their cellars thaw in

2024-458: The Aleut population died from Eurasian infectious diseases . These had been endemic among the Europeans for centuries, but the Aleut had no immunity against the new diseases. The Russian Tsarist government expanded into Indigenous territory in present-day Alaska for its own geopolitical reasons. It consumed natural resources of the territory during the trading years, and Russian Orthodoxy

2112-581: The Aleut woman, legitimizing their children. In Saint Petersburg , then capital of Russia, Nikolai Rezanov was a high official, Chamberlain to the Tsar . He was also Chairman of the RAC, successor of the Shelikhov Company, through which Russia occupied and ruled Alaska. Due to Rezanov's influence at the royal court, in 1799 Baranov was appointed as Chief Manager – to manage all of the RAC's interests in

2200-480: The Arctic and the circumpolar north, the ancestors of Alaska Natives established varying indigenous , complex cultures that have succeeded each other over time. They developed sophisticated ways to deal with the challenging climate and environment. Historical groups have been defined by their languages, which belong to several major language families. Today, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans constitute more than 20% of

2288-731: The Board of the RAC. On 27 November, Baranov and Hagemeister left Alaska together on the Navy ship Kutuzov for Russia. The ship headed south on a route that would take it west around the Cape of Good Hope at the foot of the African continent, to sail northward to St. Petersburg. En route, the ship made an extended stopover in March 1819 in the Dutch settlement of Batavia , on the island of Java , then part of

2376-527: The Great , who became Empress in 1763, proclaimed good will toward the Aleut and urged her subjects to treat them fairly. The growing competition between the trading companies, which merged into fewer, larger and more powerful corporations, created conflicts that aggravated the relations with the indigenous populations . Over the years, the situation became catastrophic for the Aleuts, as well as other Native Alaskan people who were impacted by Russian contact. As

2464-615: The Imperial Court. Tsar Paul I was found to be far more receptive to a Russian fur monopoly than his deceased mother. Rezanov was able to broker a merger with Golikov and Mylnikov on 20 July 1797, creating the United American Company . Natalia sold her assets, valued at ₽ 688,460, for ₽600,000 and reinvested a third of the proceeds as capital in the new venture. Two years later the Russian government announced

2552-575: The Native Alaskan groups were spread throughout Alaska. Arriving from Siberia by ship in the mid-eighteenth century, Russians began to trade with Alaska Natives in what became known as the Aleutian Islands . They started new settlements around trading posts, and Russian Orthodox missionaries were part of these. The Russian missionaries were the first persons to translate Christian scripture into Native languages, such as Tlingit . In

2640-749: The Northern Pacific expanded in subsequent years. The North Eastern and Baptist companies were founded in 1790; in the following year the Unalaska Company was formed. The operational quarters were moved to Pavlovskaya in 1792. Shelikhov departed for Irkutsk on 22 May 1786, intending to inform the Imperial Government of his commercial activities. Both he and his partner Golikov sought a monopoly amongst Russian fur traders in North America from Empress Catherine II . It

2728-582: The Pacific ended there. In 1807 Baranov was awarded the Order of St. Anna , 2nd class for his successful perseverance and leadership. That year he received news that his Russian wife had died. Baranov married his Native mistress in the Russian Orthodox church and had their three children legitimized. Despite his success in reestablishing a solid presence at present-day Sitka, to which Baranov had moved

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2816-621: The RAC colonies, Rezanov avoided a definite answer. The American maritime fur trader John DeWolf was at Sitka when Rezanov arrived. DeWolf, noting the difficulty the RAC had in acquiring decent ships, offered to sell his ship Juno to the RAC. Rezanov readily agreed. In the spring of 1806, Rezanov sailed the Juno from Sitka to San Francisco in Spanish-held California to obtain urgently needed food supplies in exchange for otter furs. He also tried to establish an alliance with

2904-477: The Russian American Company an edge in competition with American and British fur traders. But the conscription separated men from their families and villages, thus altering and breaking down communities. With able-bodied men away on the hunt, villages were left with little protection as only women, children, and the elderly remained behind. In addition to changes that came with conscription,

2992-427: The Russian American Company provided them with an education. Many Orthodox missionaries, like Herman of Alaska , defended Natives from exploitation. Creole people were believed to have high levels of loyalty toward the Russian crown and Russian American Company. After completing their education, children were often sent to Russia, where they would study skills such as mapmaking, theology, and military intelligence. In

3080-597: The Russian settlement at Yakutat , which Baranov decided to abandon. Late that year, Nikolai Rezanov, the Tsar's Chamberlain and Chairman of the RAC, arrived in Russian America for an inspection trip. He had heard rumors that Baranov was mismanaging affairs. But Rezanov's resulting reports to the Tsar praised Baranov's management and attributed rumors against the governor to malcontents. Baranov asked to be relieved of his position so that he could return to Russia and see his family there again. Believing Baranov to be indispensable to

3168-494: The Russian stratified order of classes. Baranov ran away from home at the young age of fifteen and went to Moscow, where he became a clerk before returning home. After he married and his first child (a daughter) was born, Baranov took his young family to Siberia for its frontier opportunities. In Irkutsk , he became a trader and tax collector with his brother. Eventually, his wife left Baranov and returned to Kargopol with their daughter and two young children they had adopted. There

3256-434: The Russians to start these taxations. Robbery and maltreatment in the form of corporal punishment and the withholding of food was also present upon the arrival of fur traders. Catherine the Great dissolved the giving of tribute in 1799, but her government initiated mandatory conscription of Indigenous men between the ages of 18 and 50 to become seal hunters strictly for the Russian American Company. This mandatory labor gave

3344-567: The Spanish against the United Kingdom and United States . During this visit with the Spanish of Northern California, he became enamored of María de la Concepción "Conchita" Argüello , the famously beautiful daughter of the commander of the Spanish garrison at San Francisco. They became engaged to be married, subject to religious approvals, as she was Roman Catholic and he was Russian Orthodox . Rezanov thought this potential match would be

3432-518: The Tlingit attacked and massacred nearly everyone at the Sitka settlement. Baranov responded by gathering naval forces and an army of about 700 Aleut warriors to attack Katlian's new fort on Sitka at Indian River. He intended to push the Tlingit off Sitka Island temporarily in order to build a new Russian fort at the most strategic site on Sitka Sound. This would be at a place that had been long occupied by

3520-419: The Tlingit defenses. The Russian ground forces unsuccessfully launched a frontal attack on the Tlingit fort at Indian River. Thereafter, they concentrated on naval bombardment from the big guns of the frigate Neva. After several days, the Tlingit abandoned their fort and escaped in a "survival march" to the adjoining Chichagof Island to the north. Baranov immediately began construction of a new fort on top of

3608-642: The Tlingit, who also knew its strategic value. To Baranov's great surprise and satisfaction, as he prepared for battle, a decree arrived from Tsar Alexander I promoting him to the rank of Collegiate Counselor—a rank in the middle of the Russian ranks of nobility. From the lowly class of mestchannin , far below nobility, he had been elevated to a rank equal or superior to the Imperial Russian Navy ship captains, who had treated him with condescension because of his low social rank. In September 1804, Baranov sailed into Sitka Sound with his forces, including

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3696-447: The United States forced evacuation of around nine hundred Aleuts from the Aleutian Islands . The idea was to remove the Aleuts from a potential combat zone during World War II for their own protection, but European Americans living in the same area were not forced to leave. The removal was handled so poorly that many Aleuts died after they were evacuated; the elderly and children had the highest mortality rates. Survivors returned to

3784-439: The amount of respiratory illnesses in many regions in Alaska, in 2005 pneumonia was the leading cause of hospitalizations (Brubaker). Many of the affected tribes are experiencing increased mental stress due to climate change and the problem of relocating but no policy or way to relocate (Brubaker). Stress has also increased on villages who face infrastructure damage due to melting permafrost, there are almost no regulations other than

3872-541: The animal populations declined, the Aleuts, already dependent on the new barter economy created by their fur trade with the Russians, were increasingly coerced into taking greater risks in the dangerous waters of the North Pacific to hunt for more otter. As the Shelikhov-Golikov Company and later Russian-American Company developed as a monopoly, it used skirmishes and systematic violence as

3960-404: The attempt was thwarted. Meanwhile, he learned that men who had been appointed by the RAC to relieve Baranov died en route to Alaska, to his great disappointment. Activity in the region flourished as trading in sea otter and seal furs boomed. Baranov convinced Native hunters to expand their range to include the coasts of California . Baranov also advocated more educational opportunities for

4048-401: The capital of Russian America from Kodiak, there was local opposition to his rule. He wore a shirt of iron mail beneath his outer shirt to protect himself. The Tlingit made several unsuccessful attempts at assassination, and were amazed by his survival, not knowing of his armor. In 1810, Baranov was at risk of assassination by some of his own disgruntled Russian soldiers, but he was warned and

4136-445: The contiguous United States, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans do not have treaties with the United States that protect their subsistence rights, except for the right to harvest whales and other marine mammals. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act explicitly extinguished aboriginal hunting and fishing rights in the state of Alaska. Census 2010. According to the 2010 census this was the ethnic breakdown of Alaska Natives by region,

4224-419: The direction of a British sea captain working for the Russian-American Company (RAC) a sea-going sailing ship was built at Resurrection Bay . This was important for the colonies in fulfilling their transportation needs. Shortly after, a group of Russian Orthodox clergy arrived in Russian America. Their views were often at odds with Baranov's methods of management, especially of the native workers. He founded

4312-423: The distance behind the chief. The two paintings together, by the same artist at the same time, offer a remarkable narrative on war and peace. In October 1818, Hagemeister appointed his second-in-command Navy Lt. Semyon Yanovsky , by then husband of Irina Baranov and thus Baranov's son-in-law, to act as Chief Manager and governor. Yanovsky was replaced in 1820 with Matvey Muravyev who had been appointed directly by

4400-470: The eighteenth century. British and American traders, coming mostly from eastern settlements in North America, generally did not reach the area until the nineteenth century. In some cases, Christian missionaries were not active in Alaska until the twentieth century. Vitus Bering spotted Alaska during an expedition. Native Alaskans first came into contact with Russians in the 18th century. Time of contact with Russians varied throughout each native group since

4488-612: The fall of 1790 to be the chief manager of the Shelikhov-Golikov Company , and to establish and manage additional trading posts in the Kodiak Island region. En route in 1790 from Okhotsk , Siberia to Kodiak Island of Russian America, Baranov suffered the wreck of his ship in October on Unalaska Island , an Aleutian Island close to the Alaska Peninsula. It was about 600 miles from Kodiak. With critical help from

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4576-660: The family separation and cultural eradication. In 1912, the Alaska Native Brotherhood (ANB) was formed to help fight for citizenship rights. The Alaska Native Sisterhood (ANS) was created in 1915. Also in 1915, the Alaska Territorial legislature passed a law allowing Alaskan Natives the right to vote – but on the condition that they give up their cultural customs and traditions. The Indian Citizenship Act , passed in 1924, gave all Native Americans United States citizenship. ANB began to hold

4664-513: The field, including the Aleutian and Kuril Islands . However, due to the one-year travel time each way between St. Petersburg and Alaska, it was late 1800 before Baranov learned of his promotion and expanded responsibilities. Communication with the government in St. Petersburg was so difficult that Baranov was left almost entirely on his own to decide any pressing issues. For all practical matters, he

4752-505: The financial advisors felt the Imperial Government could draw profits by "collecting 10 percent duties for imported and exported goods." The Empress gave gifts to two merchants, pleased of their discoveries. Despite the support of government officials, Catherine refused to stray from her laissez-faire economic policies and declined granting a monopoly to the Irkutsk entrepreneurs. With Shelikhov's death in 1795 his widow, Natalia Shelikova ,

4840-525: The financial records of Russian America for any evidence of Baranov's alleged wrongdoing. Hagemeister succeeded Baranov as Chief Manager and governor in January 1818. Khlebnikov was appointed Office Manager, receiving company capital totaling two and a half million rubles . Khlebnikov's audit showed that the books balanced to the ruble, with all income and disbursements accounted for. There was no evidence of malfeasance by Baranov. The audit showed that Baranov

4928-610: The first climate refugees for America, due to sea ice melting and increased wildfires in the regions (Bronen and Brubaker). The effects of climate change on the people of Alaska are extensive and include issues such as increased vulnerability to disease, mental health issues, injury, food insecurity, and water insecurity (Brubaker). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the loss of sea ice will increase erosion area and further displace more native communities. The melting sea ice will also affect

5016-437: The first governor of Russian America. He served until 1818. This was the early colonial period of expansion of settlements. He founded Pavlovskaya (Kodiak) and later New Archangel (Sitka), Russian colonies that were bases of the company in present-day Alaska. In addition, he oversaw the expansion of the lucrative fur trade with Alaska Natives . He engaged in brutal tactics to extract wealth from Alaska. He demanded tribute in

5104-588: The forms of furs from native peoples, a practice known as Yasak . To enforce the demands for tribute, he took hostages and demanded furs in exchange for release of hostages. He continued to support his Russian wife and children, who had moved from Siberia back to live near St. Petersburg. In Pavlovskaya, Baranov took an Aleut woman as mistress and had three mixed-race children with her. After learning that his wife had died in 1807 in Russia, he married his mistress, legitimizing their children. In 1817 Irina, his oldest daughter born in Alaska, married Semyon Yanovsky ,

5192-523: The frigate Neva . Baranov met with Katlian and other Native chiefs and tried to negotiate a peaceful resolution, without success. Just before the Battle of Sitka began, most of the Tlingit gunpowder (acquired from the British and Americans) exploded. It was hit by Russian gunfire while being moved by Tlingit warriors in a war canoe to their main fort from storage on a small island. This loss greatly weakened

5280-442: The government from other Native Americans in the United States . This is in part related to their interactions with the U.S. government which occurred in a different historical period than its interactions during the period of westward expansion during the 19th century. Europeans and Americans did not have sustained encounters with the Alaska Natives until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when many were attracted to

5368-409: The imposition of discriminatory laws, segregation amongst Alaskan Natives and Americans occurred; for example, " whites only " signs excluded natives from entering buildings. There were also segregated schools. An 1880 court case describes a child not allowed to attend a school with Americans because his stepfather was native. A child that was part native and part American would only be allowed to attend

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5456-481: The islands to find their homes and possessions destroyed or looted. Civil rights activists such as Alberta Schenck Adams and Elizabeth Peratrovich protested discriminatory laws against Native Alaskans with what were effectively sit-ins and lobbying. The Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945 , the first anti-discrimination state law in the U.S., occurred as a result of these protests. It entitled all Alaskans to "full and equal enjoyment" of public areas and businesses,

5544-494: The land occupied by the Russians was never purchased. He believed it was important in order to ensure that the region remained under Russian instead of British control. In 1802, after Baranov had returned to Kodiak to tend to matters there, the Tlingit tribe on Sitka Island decided to expel the Russians. The latter disregarded the Tlingit warnings to evacuate. Led by war chief Katlian (spelled Kot-le-an in Michener's Alaska ),

5632-453: The local indigenous Aleut people, Baranov and his shipmates survived the winter. They continued their journey via Native sea-going boats in the spring of 1791 and reached Kodiak Island. In 1792, Baranov moved the Russian settlement from Three Saints Bay , which had too constrained an area to succeed, to what they called Pavlovskaya (later renamed as Kodiak). In 1793, he founded the port of Voskresenskii, modern-day Seward . In 1794, under

5720-466: The majority of Alaska Natives live in small villages or remote regional hubs such as Nome , Dillingham , and Bethel , the percentage who live in urban areas has been increasing. In 2010, 44% lived in urban areas, compared to 38% in the 2000 census. As of 2018, natives constitute 15.4% of the overall Alaskan population. The modern history of Alaska Natives begins with the first contact between Alaskan First Nations and Russians sailing from Siberia in

5808-416: The migration of some animals that the tribes rely on and with the ice melting there will be no place to store the food that they do obtain (EPA). Due to the permafrost melting, the infrastructure that has been around in the past will become unstable and native villages will collapse (EPA). The Shishmaref, Kivalina, Shaktoolik and Newtok tribes are located on the west coast of Alaska and due to sea-level rise

5896-570: The population of Alaska. Below is a full list of the different Alaska Native or Native Alaskan peoples, who are largely defined by their historical languages (within each culture are different tribes): The Alaska Natives Commission estimated there were about 86,000 Alaska Natives living in Alaska in 1990, with another 17,000 who lived outside Alaska. A 2013 study by the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development documented more than 120,000 Alaska Native people in Alaska. While

5984-598: The region in gold rushes. The Alaska Natives were not allotted individual title in severalty to land under the Dawes Act of 1887 but were instead treated under the Alaska Native Allotment Act of 1906. The Allotment Act was repealed in 1971, following ANSCA, at which time reservations were ended. Another characteristic difference is that Alaska Native tribal governments do not have the power to collect taxes for business transacted on tribal land, per

6072-564: The requests from the merchants. The official noted that because "those charged with collecting the iasak had often misused their powers", many Alaskan Natives "shunned any allegiance and had attempted to take vengeance on the Russians in any way they could." and advised the iasak be made voluntary for the indigenous of the New World. The College of Commerce supporting giving Golikov and Shelikhov "a noninterest-bearing loan of 200,000 rubles, to be repaid in installments over twenty years..." as

6160-457: The risk of injury, usually there are thick layers of ice all year long but due to increasing temperatures in the atmosphere and the sea the ice is becoming thinner and is increasing the number of people who fall through the ice, if a person survives falling through the ice they are faced with other health concerns (Brubaker). Increased water insecurity and failing infrastructure caused by climate change has created sanitation issues which has increased

6248-681: The spread of disease also altered the populations of Indigenous communities. Although records kept in the period were scarce, it has been said that 80% of the pre-contact population of the Aleut people were gone by 1800. Relationships between Indigenous women and fur traders increased as Indigenous men were away from villages. This resulted in marriages and children that would come to be known as Creole peoples , children who were Indigenous and Russian. To reduce hostilities with Aleutian communities, it became policy for fur traders to enter into marriage with Indigenous women. The Creole population increased in

6336-546: The summers leaving their food supply inedible. Gathering of subsistence food continues to be an important economic and cultural activity for many Alaska Natives. In Utqiaġvik, Alaska , in 2005, more than 91 percent of the Iñupiat households which were interviewed still participated in the local subsistence economy, compared with the approximately 33 percent of non-Iñupiat households who used wild resources obtained from hunting, fishing, or gathering. But, unlike many tribes in

6424-597: The territory controlled by the Russian American Company. The growth of the Russian Orthodox Church was another important tactic in the colonization and conversion of Indigenous populations. Ioann Veniaminov, who later became Saint Innocent of Alaska , was an important missionary who carried out the Orthodox Church's agenda to Christianize Indigenous populations. The church encouraged Creole children to follow Russian Orthodox Christianity, while

6512-531: The third wave of migration, in which people settled across the northern part of North America. They never migrated to southern areas. Genetic studies show they are not closely related to native peoples in South America. Alaska Natives came from Asia. Anthropologists have stated that their journey from Asia to Alaska was made possible through the Bering land bridge or by traveling across the sea. Throughout

6600-463: The total is 100% for each region: [REDACTED] Africa [REDACTED] Eurasia [REDACTED] North America [REDACTED] Oceania [REDACTED] South America Aleksandr Andreyevich Baranov Alexander Andreyevich Baranov ( Russian : Александр Андреевич Баранов ; 3 February [ O.S. 14 February] 1747 – 16 April [ O.S. 28 April] 1819), sometimes spelled Aleksandr or Alexandr and Baranof,

6688-428: The villages are experiencing more severe storm surges that are eroding their coastlines (Bronen). There is no land for these tribes to move to that are already in the area they live in which forces these communities to migrate and change their whole way of living (Bronen). It is predicted that a climate event will submerge the tribes completely in less than fifteen years (Bronen). Extreme weather conditions has increased

6776-814: Was Baranov's greatest failure, causing considerable expense to the RAC. As a result of this failure, concern about Baranov's age (70), and allegations against him by navy officers returning from Alaska, the RAC Board of Directors decided to commission Russian Navy Capt. Lt. Ludwig von Hagemeister (also known as Leontij in Russian) to go to Alaska, investigate the charges against Baranov, and replace him as Chief Manager and governor. He did not reach Alaska until 1817, and replaced Baranov in early 1818. Hagemeister arrived at Sitka in November 1817 with an accountant, Kirill Khlebnikov (later Baranov's first biographer), to audit

6864-464: Was a Russian trader and merchant, who worked for some time in Siberia . He was recruited by the Shelikhov-Golikov Company for trading in Russian America, beginning in 1790 with a five-year contract as manager of the outpost. He continued to serve past the end date of his contract. In 1799 Baranov was promoted, appointed by the recently chartered Russian-American Company as Chief Manager, effectively

6952-558: Was argued that only a single consolidated Russian company could be effective against British and American entrepreneurs active in the region. Government subsidies were petitioned for as well, hoped to bolster the operational capacity of the company. Additionally, soldiers of the Russian Imperial Army were requested to be stationed at company outposts. Ivan V. Yakoby, the Governor-General of Irkutsk , forwarded

7040-487: Was created out of rival Russian companies in 1797, including the assets of Lebedev-Lastochkin Company, ensuring its commercial dominance among Russian merchants. In the Ukase of 1799 the company was granted a monopoly among Russians in North America by Tsar Paul I , becoming the basis of the Russian-American Company . Both of the partners were natives of Kursk , beginning their commercial cooperation in 1783. The company

7128-419: Was evangelized. Their movement into these populated areas of Indigenous communities altered the demographic and natural landscape. Historians have suggested that the Russian-American Company exploited Indigenous peoples as a source of inexpensive labor. The Russian-American Company not only used Indigenous populations for labor during the fur trade, but also held some as hostages to acquire iasak . Iasak,

7216-689: Was funded by the men "to sail to the land of Aliaska , which is called America, to islands known and unknown, in order to trade in furs, make explorations, and arrange voluntary trade with the natives." It was also intended to sell fish and furs to ports in China , Japan , Korea , the Indian subcontinent and the Philippines . In return supplies needed in Eastern Siberia , including salt and rice , would be purchased. The first company expedition

7304-460: Was intended to develop farm products to feed the Alaskan communities. In 1815, Baranov sent Dr. Georg Schäffer , a physician, to Hawaii to establish a way station to accommodate Russian ships carrying furs from Alaska to the booming fur markets of Canton, China . Schaffer got involved with Hawaiian politics to the displeasure of King Kamahameha; he was forced to depart for China and leave the Russian forts on Kauaʻi abandoned. The Hawaiian project

7392-467: Was left in control of the company. The various assets were amalgamated into the American Company . Golikov became a partner with Nikolai Mylnikov, another Irkutsk based fur trader, during 1797 in an attempt to rival Shelikhova. Natalia delegated more responsibilities of the daily operations in Russian America upon Alexander Baranov , and used her son-in-law, Nikolai Rezanov to curry favor with

7480-429: Was no divorce in the Russian Orthodox Church. Baranov supported them all from afar. Due to business reverses that had left Baranov nearly bankrupt, he was lured to Russian America by opportunities offered by Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov , a merchant and developer who had established a settlement on Kodiak Island to enhance the growing Russian maritime fur trade there. Baranov accepted a five-year contract starting in

7568-420: Was personally almost insolvent because he had made it a practice to help others in financial distress with his own funds throughout his rule. In late July 1818, a Russian Imperial Navy ship sailing around the world arrived in Sitka for a brief visit of less than a month. On board was Mikhail Tikhanov , a Navy artist assigned to document the voyage. In August 1818, Tikhanov painted an oil portrait of Baranov and

7656-630: Was sent during 1783 under the command of Shelikhov, with the intention to make several permanent trading posts . The first post was created at Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island in 1784. During that year, Shelikhov lead a small militia in the Awa'uq Massacre against Alutiiqs living on the island. Before Shelikhov's departure in 1786, Promyshlenniki , Aleuts from the Fox Islands and Alutiiq created company stations on Cook Inlet , Cape Saint Elias and Afognak Island . Shelikov's commercial activities in

7744-480: Was the government of Alaska. In 1799, Baranov had decided that perceived British encroachment on Russia's holdings in southeastern Alaska required him to build a defensive fort in that area. While the Russians maintained that he bought a portion of land from the Tlingit and built a fort and settlement on Sitka Island overlooking Sitka Sound , the Tlingit believed that land could not be owned, therefore meaning that

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