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75-477: Shi Le is notably the only emperor in Chinese history to have risen from the status of slave. He was known as a brilliant general, but was criticized by historians for excessive cruelty during his campaigns. He also put too much power in the hands of his ambitious and even more ferocious nephew Shi Hu who, after Shi Le's death, seized power from Shi Le's son Shi Hong . Additionally, Shi Le was an important figure in

150-425: A base of operations and gradually took increasingly larger pieces of territory under his control—still under Han's name, but acting independently. As it became increasingly clear that Liu Cong, who was talented but violent and wasteful, had become distracted by sensual pleasures and was not able to make Han into an efficient state, Shi began to act even more independently. In early 314, Shi considered plans to destroy

225-624: A campaign would bring ill fortune, cancelled the campaign plans. In 346, the Later Zhao generals Wang Zhuo (王擢) and Ma Qiu attacked Former Liang with intent to conquer it, but after some initial successes, they were repelled by the Former Liang general Xie Ai . Another attack by Ma in 347 was also repelled by Xie. Later in 347, believing a Buddhist monk's words that the Hu (胡, broad term encompassing non- Han ) were about to lose their power to

300-445: A city, he often slaughtered the entire population. Even though Shi Le rebuked him at times, he could not get Shi Hu to change his ways. However, despite his cruelty, he also gave his officers leeway in their tactics, and he often led them into battles fearless of dangers. Therefore, Shi Le trusted him greatly and made him one of his top lieutenants. Shi Le frequently sent Shi Hu out in command of forces against important foes and gave him

375-586: A crisis as the non-Xiongnu tribes in the Guanzhong region rebelled and place his capital under pressure. He had previously imprisoned the minister, You Ziyuan , who was against his decision to execute all the conspirators of a prior rebellion that led to the more drastic current one. Now that he had been proven wrong, Liu Yao wanted to kill You Ziyuan too, but Huyan Yan and his peers pleaded for his innocence, and that Liu Yao should forgive and release him instead. Liu Yao agreed and with You Ziyuan, he managed to quell

450-416: A defensible city to serve as headquarters so that he could start to hold and increase his territory. Under Zhang's advice, Shi, later that year, captured Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xintai , Hebei ) and made it his headquarters. He became increasingly reliant on Zhang for advice, and he respected Zhang so much that he no longer referred to him by name. It was also during this time when Shi Le was introduced to

525-542: A delegation to pay tribute to Liu Yao. Liu Yao was very pleased, and made Shi the Prince of Zhao. However, subsequently, Liu Yao became suspicious that Shi was about to rebel, so killed Shi's lead delegate. Shi became angry, and later that year declared independence under the title of Prince of Zhao. (Because Liu Yao, also in 319, changed the formal name of his state from Han to Zhao, Shi's state became known as Later Zhao, while Liu Yao's state became known as Former Zhao) For

600-673: A fast bull grows up, it would often break wagons that it pulls. Endure him a little bit." By the time he got to age 18, he was about 184 cm tall, and he became known for his bravery in battle and skills in archery and horsemanship , and the entire army feared him. Shi Le gave him the sister of the general Guo Rong (郭榮) in marriage to him, but he favored his concubine Zheng Yingtao and, at Zheng's instigation, killed Lady Guo. The same happened to his next wife, Lady Cui. He also became known for his cruelty in governing his soldiers and in battle, as he often executed officers who disagreed with his wishes or had great abilities, and whenever he captured

675-399: A large number of construction projects, and further ordered major conscriptions, with plans to attack not only Jin but also Former Liang and Former Yan. The people were greatly burdened, and the officials took the chances of these projects to engage in corruption. The people were described of being so troubled that many committed suicide. In 344, after believing the astrologer Zhao Lan (趙攬) that

750-535: A major assault on Xiangguo, the defense of which had not yet been completed. Shi's general Kong Chang , however, made a surprise attack against Duan forces, capturing Duan Jilujuan's cousin Duan Mopei (段末柸). Most of Shi's generals wanted to execute Duan Mopei, but instead Shi treated Duan Mopei with courtesy and returned him to Duan forces. The Duan then withdrew and began to disassociate themselves from Wang. Subsequent to this battle, Shi began to use Xiangguo as

825-472: A major famine, and the Jie tribes were seriously affected. Shi Le's tribe spread out and became refugees. Shi and many other Jie and hu people were captured by Jin officials and sold as slaves. Eventually, he was sold to a man named Shi Huan (師懽), but Shi Huan freed him after becoming impressed with his talents. Eventually, he became a leader of bandits, and at one point he befriended Ji Sang , one of Sima Ying

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900-631: A major rebellion—by former Crown Prince Xuan's guard captain Liang Du (梁犢), whose men were driven by desperation after finding out that they were not covered by the general pardon that Shi Hu issued when he took imperial title. They defeated every army sent to oppose them, until the Qiang chief Yao Yizhong was able to defeat them. Yao took the opportunity to try to persuade Shi Hu that it was unwise to have an heir so young, but although Shi Hu honored Yao greatly, he did not listen to Yao. In summer 349, Shi Hu

975-701: A number of exceedingly luxurious palaces. One of them, Taiwu Palace (太武殿), was described in this manner: He further built nine additional palaces and selected many women to fill the palaces. The tax and labor burdens of these projects greatly encumbered the people, and he further gathered many men as soldiers with intent to conquer other states, increasing the burden. In 337, Shi Hu claimed the title Heavenly King ( Tian Wang ), and he give title to his wife Zheng Yingtao empress and his son Shi Sui (石邃) crown prince, while his sons who were previously given title of princes were given duke titles instead. Later in 337, Shi Hu would kill his recently appointed crown prince. Shi Sui

1050-504: A rebellion with the stated goal of restoring Sima Ying. Ji and Shi both joined the rebellion—and it was only at that time that Ji gave his friend the family name "Shi" and personal name "Le." After Gongsun was subsequently defeated and killed, Ji became leader of the rebellion and made Shi his key general—now with the goal of avenging Sima Ying, who was forced to commit suicide in late 306. However, their rebellion, while briefly successful in capturing Yecheng in 307 and killing Sima Teng (司馬騰)

1125-523: A son of a cousin of Shi Le 's father Zhouhezhu (周曷朱). His father died early and he became raised by Zhouhezhu and his wife, Shi Le's mother Lady Wang, so he was also sometimes referred to as Shi Le's brother. During the early 300s, a severe famine affected the Jie tribesmen, and Shi Hu became separated from Shi Le. Later, after Shi Le had become a powerful Han-Zhao general, Liu Kun the Jin governor of Bing Province (并州, modern northern and central Shanxi ), where

1200-635: A while longer, Duan served as the leader of the Jin forces remaining in Ji Province, but in 321, Shi Hu captured him as well. The only remaining point of Jin power north of the Yellow River became the Xianbei chief Murong Hui the Duke of Liaodong, who claimed Jin vassal status but was acting fairly independently in controlling the modern Liaoning . Shi, however, reached a stalemate to the south with

1275-528: The Di chief also rose and sought assistance from Former Liang . Shi Hu personally attacked Shi Lang and captured Luoyang easily, killing Shi Lang. He then attacked Chang'an with his son Shi Ting (石挺) the Prince of Liang, but Shi Ting was defeated by Shi Sheng's subordinate Guo Quan (郭權) and killed. Shi Hu was forced to withdraw. However, Shi Sheng did not know about this victory and, when the Xianbei chief Shegui (涉瑰) rebelled, panicked and fled, abandoning Chang'an, and

1350-559: The Jie -led Chinese Later Zhao dynasty. He was the founding emperor Shi Le (Emperor Ming)'s distant nephew and adopted brother, who took power in a coup after Shi Le's death from Shi Le's heir Shi Hong . Due to Tang dynasty naming taboo , he is referred to as Shi Jilong (石季龍) in the Book of Jin . Shi Hu was a talented general who rarely lost battles, and Shi Le relied on him heavily in his conquest of northern and central China. However, he

1425-523: The Kuchan Buddhist monk, Fotudeng , by one of his generals. Fotudeng supposedly impressed Shi Le with his supernatural abilities and predictions, so Shi Le recruited him as one of his advisors. In early 313, Wang Jun , the Jin governor of Youzhou (modern Beijing , Tianjin , and northern Hebei ), allied with the Xianbei Duan chief Duan Jilujuan (段疾陸眷) the Duke of Liaoxi , made

1500-415: The eunuch Yan Zhen (嚴震), but this only served to aggravate Shi Hu. In 333, Shi Le grew ill, and Shi Hu, during Shi Le's illness, began to put his sons in command of armies, preparing for a coup. When Shi Le died in the fall, Shi Hu immediately seized power in a coup, killing Cheng and Xu. Apparently pursuant to Shi Le's directions, he was secretly buried at a location unknown publicly, and an empty casket

1575-585: The Duke of Zhao. Subsequently, Jin Zhun, with his forces under pressure from two sides, was assassinated and succeeded by his cousin Jin Ming (靳明), who abandoned Pingyang and surrendered to Liu Yao. Shi entered the capital but did not occupy it. Shi Le burned palaces in Pingyang. With the capital heavily damaged by the coup and the subsequent battles, Liu Yao moved the capital to Chang'an . In early 319, Shi sent

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1650-506: The Former Zhao capital Chang'an and retreated to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui , Gansu ) with his brother Liu Yin . In fall 328, Liu Yin tried to lead Former Zhao forces to recapture Chang'an, but Shi Hu defeated him, and subsequently marched on Shanggui, capturing it and killing Liu Xi, Liu Yin, and the other Former Zhao nobles, ending Han-Zhao. The former Former Zhao territory became Later Zhao possessions. In 330, Shi Le assumed

1725-640: The Han and that the Han needed to be suppressed, further forced the Han men to engage in great labor. In 348, the conflict between Shi Xuan and Shi Tao came to a horrible resolution. After a dispute over Shi Tao's building of a palace named Xuanguang Palace (宣光殿) -- since that name violated the naming taboo on Shi Xuan's name—Shi Xuan assassinated Shi Tao and considered assassinating Shi Hu as well. Shi Hu quickly suspected Shi Xuan, and his suspicions were fanned by that Shi Xuan showed no sign of mourning for Shi Tao. He detained Shi Xuan and arrested his followers, discovering

1800-423: The Jie were from, located Shi Hu and Lady Wang and sent them to Shi Le along with messengers, trying to persuade Shi Le to defect from Han to Jin. Shi Le, in gratitude, sent horses and jewel to Liu, but did not accept his invitation. (Since the Jie did not appear to use family names, and Shi Le's own family name of "Shi" was given to him by his friend Ji Sang , presumably this was also the time that Shi Le gave Shi Hu

1875-496: The Jin governor of Yu Province (豫州, modern eastern Henan and northwestern Anhui ) Zu Ti , and eventually the sides reached an informal détente with the Yellow River serving as the border, leading to peace and trade relations. After Zu's death in 321, however, Later Zhao forces began to again attack Jin, gradually capturing Jin territory between the Yellow River and the Huai River . In 322, Zhang Bin died—and Shi lamented at

1950-433: The Prince of Chengdu's military commanders. Sima Ying was then stationed at Yecheng and was the most powerful of the Jin imperial princes. After Sima Ying briefly served as crown prince in 304, he was forced to flee with his brother Emperor Hui to the capital Luoyang and was deposed by Sima Yong the Prince of Hejian. Many of his subordinates, including Ji and Gongsun Fan (公孫藩), deserted, and Gongsun eventually started

2025-497: The Prince of Xincai, ultimately was defeated in the winter of that year, and Shi instead joined Liu Yuan , an ethnically Xiongnu former Sima Ying subordinate who had by now declared independence from Jin and established his own state Han-Zhao . Liu Yuan made him a general. For the next few years, Shi led his roving band, which he appeared to have largely recruited himself, throughout central China, losing few battles but largely interested in pillaging and not in holding territory. From

2100-494: The Prince of Yiyang. Shi Jian then fell under the control of Shi Min, and by 350 Shi Min had killed Shi Jian and massacred most Jie and hu people, changed his family name back to his father's original Ran (冉), and usurped the throne. Another son of Shi Hu's, Shi Zhi , would claim imperial title and try to reestablish Later Zhao, but by 351 he was dead as well. Shi Hu's empire and people were destroyed, just two years after his death. Huyan Yan Huyan Yan (fl. 4th century)

2175-524: The ashes to be scattered among the famous roads, allowing people, horses, and carriages to trample them. Shi Xuan's mother Empress Du was reduced to commoner status, and Shi Xuan's wife, concubines, and sons were all executed, including his youngest, whom Shi Hu was holding in his arms and was considering pardoning—but the executioner grabbed the child out of Shi Hu's arms and executed him. Shi Hu, shocked by his young grandson's death, grew ill. Shi Xuan's subordinates were executed and dismembered as well, and threw

2250-484: The assassination plot. He planned to execute Shi Xuan, despite opposition from the Buddhist monk Fu Tucheng , whose prophecies he had respected greatly and who had predicted that Shi Xuan's death would bring great disaster on the empire. Indeed, he carried out a most cruel execution of Shi Xuan. Shi Xuan was placed near a wooden platform with a ladder leading up to it. His hairs and tongue were then pulled out, and then he

2325-459: The beginning, though, Shi showed willingness to accept learned men into his army to serve as advisors and officers, unlike many other agrarian revolt leaders, and he gained many followers, mostly from the Jie and other non- Han ethnicities, but including some Han as well. After Liu Yuan's death in 310, Shi continued to submit to the authority of Liu Yuan's son and successor Liu Cong . In summer 311, Shi's prestige and power increased greatly when he

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2400-485: The bodies into the Zhang River, and the crown prince's guards were exiled to Liang Province (涼州, modern eastern Gansu ). Later that year, Shi Hu considered a new heir. Of his sons, Shi Bin (石斌) the Duke of Yan and Shi Zun the Duke of Pengcheng were considered the most capable, but under the advice of Zhang Chai , who understood Shi Hu's fear of yet another son rebelling and took advantage of it by suggesting that

2475-451: The borders with Jin, pillaging the border region and capturing Zhucheng (邾城, in modern Huanggang , Hubei ), ending Yu's hopes of a northern campaign. In 340, Shi Hu briefly entered into an alliance with Cheng Han 's emperor Li Shou against Jin. However, after initially excitedly wishing to attack Jin, Li Shou cancelled his plan after contrary counsel by Gong Zhuang (龔壯), and the alliance did not come to anything. In 342, Shi Hu continued

2550-547: The building from treasures to servants. Emperor Huai attempted to flee, but Wang Mi and Huyan Yan's men found and held him. This event was the beginning of the end for Jin's control over their northern territories. The following year in 312, Huyan Yan was appointed as Liu Cong's Supervisor of the Right. In 315, Liu Cong had removed his close advisor, Chen Yuanda from power as he remonstrated him for his controversial marital practice of having multiple empresses at once. Huyan Yan

2625-435: The capital but failed in his attempt to capture Linqiu (廩丘, in modern Puyang , Henan ), Shi Hu captured him and cruelly executed him by burning. Soon thereafter, Empress Dowager Liu's role was discovered, and she was executed as well. In winter 333, Shi Sheng (石生) the Prince of Hedong, in defense of Chang'an, and Shi Lang, in defense of Luoyang, declared a rebellion against Shi Hu and sought assistance from Jin. Pu Hong (蒲洪)

2700-452: The capital fell ( Disaster of Yongjia ), and Emperor Huai of Jin was captured and later executed in 313. Later that year, Shi captured the powerful Jin general Gou Xi and assassinated fellow Han general Wang, merging their forces with his own. As Shi's army grew, he increasingly trusted his young distant nephew Shi Hu as a general, and under the violent but talented Shi Hu, Shi Le's army became known for its cruel treatment of civilians but

2775-516: The first several years of his independence, Shi concentrated on annexing remaining pockets of Jin power in northern and central China. Later in 319, he attacked and defeated Duan Pidi, seizing You Province, and Duan was forced to flee to join Shao Xu the Jin governor of Ji Province (冀州, normally referring to central Hebei , but now only with control of northwestern Shandong ). In 320, Shi Le sent Shi Hu and Kong Chang against Shao, capturing him. For

2850-408: The hands of a Former Yan general, Murong Huang's son Murong Ke . During the next few years, Later Zhao would have no real way of curbing Former Yan expansions, and was eventually forced to yield most of formerly Duan territory to Former Yan. In 339, displeased that the Jin general Yu Liang was planning an attack against Later Zhao, Shi Hu acted first, sending his adopted grandson Shi Min to attack

2925-515: The joint forces defeated and essentially wiped out the Duan, but Shi Hu, angry that Murong Huang withdrew his forces early, advanced on the Former Yan capital Jicheng (棘城, in modern Jinzhou , Liaoning ) and surrounded it, intending to wipe Former Yan out. However, after nearly 20 days of siege, Later Zhao forces were unable to capture Jicheng and forced to withdraw, and they suffered heavy losses at

3000-606: The most to Shi Le's campaign successes, he should have been the crown prince or at least Grand Chanyu and was not satisfied with his title as the Prince of Zhongshan. Later that year, Shi assumed the title of emperor and made Princess Liu the empress . Shi Le, not realizing Shi Hu's intentions, still trusted Shi Hu greatly, despite warnings from his advisors Cheng Xia (the brother of Crown Prince Hong's mother Consort Cheng ) and Xu Guang , who advised him to gradually strip Shi Hu's powers and transfer them to Shi Hong. In 332, Shi Le did transfer some of Shi Hu's authority to Shi Hong and

3075-814: The next several years, they would wage war against each other bitterly, fighting over both their border territory and the parts of territory near the Yellow River still under Jin control. In 325, Shi Hu would defeat the Former Zhao general Liu Yue (劉岳), seizing the entire Luoyang region, which had previously been under split Jin and Former Zhao control, for Later Zhao. In 328, however, Former Zhao fought back, and forces under Liu Yao's personal command defeated Shi Hu's forces and surrounded Luoyang. Shi Le personally led his force to aid Luoyang, engaging Liu Yao in battle and capturing him. He initially treated Liu Yao with some respect and ordered Liu Yao to order his crown prince Liu Xi to surrender, but when Liu Yao refused, Shi executed him. Liu Xi, in fear of Later Zhao forces, abandoned

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3150-402: The other hand, he was generally lenient towards the ministers and generals that made up his power base, and propagated Buddhism by promoting religious freedom. While he was alive, his empire remained intact, but as soon as he died, his sons and adopted grandson Ran Min engaged in an internecine war that destroyed both the empire and the Jie people. Shi Hu's father was named Koumi (寇覓) and was

3225-476: The palace to serve him in his illness and cut off his communication with the outside. Shi Hu then issued false edicts summoning Shi Hong the Prince of Qin (not the crown prince) and Shi Le's adopted son Shi Kan (石堪) the Prince of Pengcheng back to the capital Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xintai , Hebei ) and then detained them. When Shi Le died in the fall, Shi Hu immediately seized the crown prince Shi Hong and arrested and executed Cheng and Xu. Shi Hong, in fear, offered

3300-401: The reasons why his prior crown princes rebelled was because their mothers were of low birth, Shi Hu instead give title to his youngest son Shi Shi the Duke of Qi crown prince, and his mother Consort Liu the youngest daughter of the Former Zhao emperor Liu Yao, empress. In spring 349, Shi Hu claimed the title of emperor and promoted all of his duke sons to princes. He soon however had to face

3375-464: The rebellion in only a few months. Liu Yao went to war with Former Liang in 323. Huyan Yan was tasked in attacking Liang's county of Sangbi (桑壁, in present-day Longxi County , Gansu ). However, the war ended with the two sides peacefully withdrawing and Liang offering their vassalage to Liu Yao. Huyan Yan's last appearance in history was in later in 323. Liu Yao's son Liu Yin had returned after he went missing during Jin Zhun's coup back in 318. He

3450-838: The rise of Buddhism in 4th-century China, as he allowed the Kuchan monk, Fotudeng to wield considerable influence in his court. Shi Le was born in 274—but was not named as such, and certainly did not have the family name "Shi", as it appeared that the Jie did not use family names at the time. His likely original name is Bèi (㔨); one other possible original name was Fule (匐勒). His grandfather, named Yeyiyu (耶奕于), and his father, named Zhouhezhu (周曷朱), were minor Jie chiefs, and their tribe traditionally lived in Bing Province (并州, modern Shanxi ). Shi grew up in Wuxiang (武鄉, in modern Jinzhong , Shanxi ). In 302 or 303, Bing Province suffered

3525-477: The same family name and gave him the courtesy name Jilong as well, patterned after his own courtesy name Shilong (世龍).) Shi Hu grew up in Shi Le's army, and when he was young, he became known for incessantly hunting and not following military orders, and particularly liked hitting people with sling bullets. Shi Le considered killing him, as the entire army was complaining about Shi Hu, but Lady Wang responded, "Before

3600-413: The same year. Liu Yao and Shi Le combined forces to attack Jin Zhun. Huyan Yan led the surviving loyalists from Pingyang to meet Liu Yao at Chibi , where they urged him to become emperor. Liu Yao did so, granting amnesty and giving appointments. Huyan Yan in particular was made Minister of Works, and following this, Liu Yao and Shi Le quickly put down Jin Zhun's rebellion. In 320, Liu Yao was struck with

3675-478: The state and arguably the period as a whole was during the Disaster of Yongjia in 311. Liu Yao, Shi Le and Wang Mi were instructed by Liu Cong to take the capital of Luoyang from the Jin dynasty. As the Jin defences continued to falter, Liu Cong sent Huyan Yan with fresh troops to aid the trio in taking the capital. Before they could meet up, Huyan Yan placed his supplies at a rampart near Luoyang. Huyan Yan

3750-549: The still powerful Wang. Knowing that Wang long had dreams of becoming an emperor, since he believed that his name was prophesied as one for an emperor, Shi pretended to be ready to submit to him and offered him the imperial throne. Wang, trusting Shi's intentions, no longer defended against him. Several months later, Shi, under the guise of offering tribute, made a surprise attack on Wang's headquarters in Ji (薊, in modern Beijing ), capturing and executing Wang. (However, at this time Shi

3825-428: The three towers. (Shi Hu retaliated by having soldiers in bandits' masquerades raid Cheng's home late at night, rape the women of his household, and rob them of their clothing.) In 330, after Shi Le successively claimed the titles of "Heavenly King" ( Tian Wang ) and emperor, Shi Hu was given title of Prince of Zhongshan, and two of his sons were also given title of princes as well. However, Shi Hu became incensed that he

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3900-586: The throne to Shi Hu, but Shi Hu forced him to take the throne. Shi Hu then forced Shi Hong to confer on him the title King of Wei—intentionally paralleling Cao Cao's title while preparing for usurpation of the Han throne—and granting him the nine bestowments . All of Shi Le's trusted officials were demoted or moved to posts with no real power, while Shi Hu's subordinates were moved into key positions. Shi Le's wife Empress Dowager Liu plotted with Shi Kan to try to start rebellions to overthrow Shi Hu, but after Shi Kan fled

3975-613: The time that Zhang's death might prevent him from completing greater things. Later that year, Shi Hu attacked and captured Xu Kan , a minor warlord based in Taishan Commandery who vacillated between allegiance to Jin and Later Zhao. In 323, Shi Hu attacked Cao Ni —a general occupying modern Shandong who vacillated between being a Jin vassal and a Former Zhao vassal but acting independently—capturing him and annexing his domain into Later Zhao control. In 324, Later Zhao and Former Zhao began actively engaging each other, and for

4050-420: The title "Heavenly King" ( Tian Wang ) and made his wife Lady Liu the queen and his son Shi Hong the crown prince; he granted another son, Shi Hong (石宏, note different character) the Prince of Qin the title "Grand Chanyu ," as official leader of the five nomadic tribes (collectively called in Chinese as Wu Hu ) under his rule. This drew secret ire from Shi Hu, who felt that as the general who had contributed

4125-458: The title of Duchess Dowager of Donghai. He instead give title to his second son Shi Xuan (石宣) as crown prince and his mother Du Zhu as empress. However, he also favored another son by Empress Du, Shi Tao (石韜), and a rivalry between the brothers soon developed. In late 337, Shi Hu entered into an alliance with the Former Yan prince Murong Huang to attack the Xianbei Duan tribe . In 338,

4200-657: The title of Marquess of Fanyang. The enemies that Shi Hu engaged while serving under Shi Le included: In 319, Shi Le, after a dispute of Liu Yao, declared independence as the Prince of Zhao (thus establishing Later Zhao, named as such due to Liu Yao changing his state's name from Han to Zhao, distinguished as the Former Zhao), and he bestowed Shi Hu a number of offices and the title the Duke of Zhongshan. After Shi Le's establishment of Later Zhao, he, even more so than before, extensively relied on Shi Hu to defeat major enemies. The major battles that Shi Hu engaged in included: As

4275-418: The title the Prince of Haiyang, but soon had him, his mother Empress Dowager Cheng , and his brothers Shi Hong and Shi Hui (石恢) the Prince of Nanyang put to death. The officials offered the imperial title to Shi Hu, but Shi Hu declined and took the title "Regent Heavenly King " (攝政天王). In 335, Shi Hu moved the capital from Xiangguo to Yecheng . Later that year, he (a self-avowed Buddhist ), unhappy that he

4350-408: The years went by, Shi Hu began to develop an antagonistic relationship with Shi Le's key advisors Cheng Xia (the maternal uncle of Shi Le's crown prince Shi Hong ) and Xu Guang , who had seen Shi Hu's ambitions and urged for Shi Le to curb his powers. The first conflict came in 326, when Shi Le, under Cheng's advice, had Shi Hong take over Yecheng's defenses, forcing Shi Hu's household to move out of

4425-759: Was a Xiongnu military general and minister of Han-Zhao during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. He was an important figure during the Disaster of Yongjia in 311 and was also a supporter of Liu Yao following Jin Zhun's coup in 318. Not much is known about Huyan Yan except that he was from the Xiongnu Huyan clan, an ally to Liu Yuan's clan through Empress Huyan's marriage with him. He and his clan members worked as officers under Liu Yuan's state of Han-Zhao and would continue to do so going into Liu Yao's reign. Huyan Yan's most important contribution to

4500-433: Was able to utterly defeat the largest Jin force remaining in central China. The Jin regent Sima Yue the Prince of Donghai had died earlier that year, and the large force that he commanded was trying to escort his funeral train back to his principality of Donghai (roughly modern Linyi , Shandong ). Shi Le intercepted them at Ku (苦縣, in modern Zhoukou , Henan ), and while the Jin force was much larger than his, Shi's force

4575-416: Was also exceedingly cruel in his military campaigns. After he became the ruler of Later Zhao under the title of "heavenly king" ( Tian Wang ), he ruled the empire with a heavy hand, imposing heavy tax and labor burdens and spending much of his effort on constructing palaces and collecting concubines . When two of his crown princes crossed him on separate occasions, he had them executed in brutal manners. On

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4650-754: Was also whipped into shape, rarely losing battles. In spring 312, though, Shi Le, preparing to have his army cross the Yangtze River to attack Jianye , then under the control of the Jin general Sima Rui the Prince of Langye, encountered difficulties as his army was trapped in the rain. Fearful that Jin forces were going to attack, Shi's key advisor Diao Ying (刁膺) suggested promising to submit to Sima Rui. Another advisor Zhang Bin disagreed, noting that Shi had dealt Jin too much damage previously to be able to submit to them. Instead, he advised Shi to retreat north—noting that Jin forces were so fearful of him that they would not likely attack—and that he should capture

4725-438: Was angry. Shi Sui therefore considered assassinating his father. Shi Hu discovered this and killed Shi Sui's co-conspirators, but initially pardoned him. However, Shi Sui refused to apologize, and this angered Shi Hu, who deposed him and then executed him, along with his wife Crown Princess Zhang and his 26 children, burying them in one humongous coffin. He also killed some 200 subordinates of Shi Sui, and he deposed Empress Zheng to

4800-415: Was dragged up the ladder onto the platform. A rope was threaded through his pierced jaw, and then he was hoisted onto a wooden pyre. His hands and feet were then cut off, his eyes gouged out, and his abdomen sliced open and entrails allowed to flow out—as how Shi Tao appeared at his death. Then, a great fire was set on the pyre, and Shi Xuan was burned to death. This did not quell Shi Hu's anger, and he ordered

4875-445: Was first to arrive at Luoyang, setting fire to many of the city's important infrastructures, plundering its wealth and capturing prisoners as he waited for his reinforcements to arrive. The Jin emperor, Emperor Huai , who was in the capital wanted to escape the city by boat, but Huyan Yan had them burned too. Reinforcements finally arrived in the form of Wang Mi. The two men led their men into the palace, taking all that they could find in

4950-428: Was himself no less cruel than his father, and one of his favorite pastimes was to order a woman to dress well, and then behead her and eat her body. Shi Hu had put him in charge of most key decisions, but at times, when Shi Sui would report his decisions, Shi Hu would be angry and yell, "Why report such minute things?" while if Shi Sui did not do so, he would yell, "Why not report?" He would further whip Shi Sui at times he

5025-470: Was instead buried in a grand ceremony at an imperial tomb. Shi Hu made Shi Hong take the throne, but would depose Shi Hong in 334 and seize the throne himself. Shi Le's descendants would all die at Shi Hu's hands. Shi Hu Shi Hu ( Chinese : 石虎 ; 295 – 26 May 349 ), courtesy name Jilong (季龍), also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Wu of Later Zhao (後趙武帝), was an emperor of

5100-474: Was killed in flight. Guo fled to Shanggui but was defeated in 334. Pu surrendered and was pardoned. That ended significant resistance to Shi Hu. In 334, unable to endure Shi Hu's vengeance, Shi Hong personally carried imperial seals and visited Shi Hu's palace, offering to abdicate to him. Shi Hu declined with sarcastic language, and Shi Hong, knowing that Shi Hu had even crueler intentions, could carry out no other intentions. In late 334, Shi Hu deposed Shi Hong to

5175-470: Was mostly cavalry, and it surrounded and disrupted the procession of the Jin force so that it stampeded itself into oblivion. The many Jin princes and officials were captured by Shi, and Shi executed them all. Shi, from that point on, became a feared general. In summer 311, several major Han generals, including Shi, Huyan Yan , Liu Yao , and Wang Mi , converged on the Jin capital Luoyang, which had been left defenseless by Sima Yue. Without major resistance,

5250-450: Was near death, and he ordered that Shi Zun and Shi Bin be made regents for Shi Shi. This interfered with Empress Liu's and Zhang Chai's plans to take over the government, and they issued false edicts imprisoning Shi Bin and sending Shi Zun away. As Shi Hu grew closer to death, Shi Bin was put to death. After he died, Shi Shi took the throne, but after just 33 days was deposed by Shi Zun, who was then deposed by another son of Shi Hu, Shi Jian

5325-464: Was not also given the title of Grand Chanyu , which Shi Le had granted to his son Shi Hong (石宏, note different character than his crown prince), and he secretly started plotting taking over after Shi Le's death. In 332, Shi Le tried to curb his powers by having the crown prince and the eunuch Yan Zhen (嚴震) participate in important decisions that were previously Shi Hu's to make, which only served to anger Shi Hu. As Shi Le grew ill in 333, Shi Hu entered

5400-622: Was one of the many ministers to sign a petition offering their positions to Chen Yuanda, so Liu Cong recalled Chen Yuanda to the government. In 318, Liu Cong was dying, so he made a number of appointments to his officials, including making Huyan Yan the Grand Guardian and authority over the Masters of Writings. Liu Cong's death was followed by turmoil as the chancellor Jin Zhun slaughtered his family and his successor Liu Can in Pingyang

5475-445: Was succeeded by his son Liu Can . Shortly after, however, Liu Can was killed by his father-in-law Jin Zhun in a coup, and Jin slaughtered all members of the imperial Liu household in the capital Pingyang (平陽, in modern Linfen , Shanxi ). Both Shi and Liu Yao, a cousin of Liu Cong, led their armies against Jin Zhun. Liu Yao declared himself emperor, and Shi decided, at that time, to submit to Liu Yao's authority. Liu Yao created him

5550-432: Was unable to distinguish which monks had become monks because they truly believed Buddhism and which had taken vows to evade taxes and labor, considered outlawing commoners from becoming monks. However, after his officials proposed a far more extensive ban than he wanted, he cancelled the plan and instead issued an edict proclaiming religious freedom. Starting 336, Shi Hu began a series of palace-building projects, completing

5625-491: Was unable to hold You Province permanently, and it fell into the hand of the Duan chief Duan Pidi , still loyal to Jin.) In fall 315, Liu Cong officially granted Shi imperial authority in the eastern empire, formalizing Shi's hold on his domain. In early 317, Shi defeated the Jin governor of Bing Province, Liu Kun , who had previously posed a major threat to Han, and took Bing Province under his control, forcing Liu to flee to You Province to join Duan. In 318, Liu Cong died and

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