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78-521: When the Later Zhao was founded by former Han-Zhao general Shi Le , the capital was at Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xingtai , Hebei ), but in 335 Shi Hu moved the capital to Yecheng (鄴城, in modern Handan , Hebei ), where it would remain for the rest of the state's history (except for Shi Zhi 's brief attempt to revive the state at Xiangguo). After defeating the Han-Zhao in 329, the Later Zhao ruled

156-425: A base of operations and gradually took increasingly larger pieces of territory under his control—still under Han's name, but acting independently. As it became increasingly clear that Liu Cong, who was talented but violent and wasteful, had become distracted by sensual pleasures and was not able to make Han into an efficient state, Shi began to act even more independently. In early 314, Shi considered plans to destroy

234-461: A day but Wenyang was eventually captured Shi Hu. His capture lowered the morale of the city's defenders. Faced with imminent defeat, Pidi planned to flee alone to the south to serve Sima Rui. However, Shao Xu's brother, Shao Ji (邵樂) detained him and handed over Sima Rui's envoy, Wang Ying (王英) to Shi Hu. Shortly after, Shao Ji and his sons bound themselves to coffins and went out to surrender. When Pidi met with Shi Hu, he said to him, "I have received

312-416: A defensible city to serve as headquarters so that he could start to hold and increase his territory. Under Zhang's advice, Shi, later that year, captured Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xintai , Hebei ) and made it his headquarters. He became increasingly reliant on Zhang for advice, and he respected Zhang so much that he no longer referred to him by name. It was also during this time when Shi Le was introduced to

390-542: A delegation to pay tribute to Liu Yao. Liu Yao was very pleased, and made Shi the Prince of Zhao. However, subsequently, Liu Yao became suspicious that Shi was about to rebel, so killed Shi's lead delegate. Shi became angry, and later that year declared independence under the title of Prince of Zhao. (Because Liu Yao, also in 319, changed the formal name of his state from Han to Zhao, Shi's state became known as Later Zhao, while Liu Yao's state became known as Former Zhao) For

468-419: A fatal mistake as Shao Xu was left exposed to Shi Le. Shi Hu attacked Yanci (厭次, around present-day Dezhou , Shandong ) and captured Shao Xu. News of Shao Xu's defeat reached Pidi, causing him to rush back to save the city. Duan Wenyang helped the army fight their way back into the city, where Pidi commanded the defence together with Shao Xu's family. In the middle of the year, Wenyang defeated Kong Chang, but it

546-540: A joint petition urging Sima Rui to claim the imperial title. Liu Kun chose his nephew Wen Jiao to deliver the petition, while Pidi chose his Chief Clerk of the Left, Rong Shao (榮卲). After their envoys reached the southern capital, Pidi proclaimed Liu Kun as Grand Commander. He also later tried to get Jilujuan into joining forces with him in a campaign against Shi Le. However, Duan Mopei advised Jilujuan against agreeing with Pidi, so Jilujuan did not respond, and Pidi had to cancel

624-535: A major assault on Xiangguo, the defense of which had not yet been completed. Shi's general Kong Chang , however, made a surprise attack against Duan forces, capturing Duan Jilujuan's cousin Duan Mopei (段末柸). Most of Shi's generals wanted to execute Duan Mopei, but instead Shi treated Duan Mopei with courtesy and returned him to Duan forces. The Duan then withdrew and began to disassociate themselves from Wang. Subsequent to this battle, Shi began to use Xiangguo as

702-472: A major famine, and the Jie tribes were seriously affected. Shi Le's tribe spread out and became refugees. Shi and many other Jie and hu people were captured by Jin officials and sold as slaves. Eventually, he was sold to a man named Shi Huan (師懽), but Shi Huan freed him after becoming impressed with his talents. Eventually, he became a leader of bandits, and at one point he befriended Ji Sang , one of Sima Ying

780-504: A rebellion with the stated goal of restoring Sima Ying. Ji and Shi both joined the rebellion—and it was only at that time that Ji gave his friend the family name "Shi" and personal name "Le." After Gongsun was subsequently defeated and killed, Ji became leader of the rebellion and made Shi his key general—now with the goal of avenging Sima Ying, who was forced to commit suicide in late 306. However, their rebellion, while briefly successful in capturing Yecheng in 307 and killing Sima Teng (司馬騰)

858-523: A selected few to be his retainers. However, Shi Hu, citing his vast contributions to the state's founding, was angered by Shi Le's decision as he saw himself having more claim to the throne. In 333, Shi Le died and was succeeded by Shi Hong. Almost immediately, Shi Hu launched a coup and took over the government, facing very little resistance from most of the Zhao gentry and military. Shi Le's family and allies were swiftly eliminated by Shi Hu, and in 334, he took

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936-688: A significant portion of northern China and vassalized the Former Liang and Dai ; only the Former Yan in Liaoning remained fully out of their control. For roughly twenty years, it maintained a stalemate with the Eastern Jin dynasty in the south before its rapid collapse in 349 following the death of Shi Hu. Shi Le was a Jie chieftain from Shangdang Commandery in Bing province . The Jie

1014-477: A similar angular differential principle. For the great ingenuity shown in the construction of the device, Shi Hu granted Xie Fei the noble title of hou without land possessions and rewarded him generously. Shi Le Shi Le ( Chinese : 石勒 ; 274 –17 August 333 ), courtesy name Shilong , also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Ming of Later Zhao , was the founding emperor of

1092-684: A while longer, Duan served as the leader of the Jin forces remaining in Ji Province, but in 321, Shi Hu captured him as well. The only remaining point of Jin power north of the Yellow River became the Xianbei chief Murong Hui the Duke of Liaodong, who claimed Jin vassal status but was acting fairly independently in controlling the modern Liaoning . Shi, however, reached a stalemate to the south with

1170-525: Is distinguished as the Former Zhao). In 321, he defeated Duan Pidi , the last remaining Jin power in northern China besides Murong Hui , and in 329 he captured Liu Yao and conquered the Han-Zhao, adding western China to his empire as well. For the next 21 years, the Later Zhao would dominate northern China. Shi Le is notably the only emperor in Chinese history to have risen from the status of slave. He

1248-626: The Former Liang , Dai and Duan-Liaoxi states partially retained their independence through vassalage, while the Xianbei Murong tribe in Liaodong remained loyal to the Eastern Jin dynasty . To consolidate his rule, Shi Le enacted several policies with the help of Han Chinese ministers such as Zhang Bin . Among others, he re-introduced the Nine Ranks System , promoted agriculture and emphasized education. He also continued

1326-456: The Han-Zhao state. After Jilujuan made peace with Han in 313, Pidi led his branch of the tribe to continue fighting Han from Jicheng . Pidi became the most powerful Jin vassal in the north, but his decision to kill his ally, Liu Kun and a civil war with his cousin, Duan Mopei severely weakened him. In 319, he was forced to flee to another Jin vassal, Shao Xu . He was eventually captured by

1404-652: The Jie -led Later Zhao dynasty of China. He was initially sold as a slave by Western Jin officials, but after attaining freedom, he helped start a rebellion and eventually became a powerful general for the Xiongnu -led Han-Zhao dynasty , conquering most of northern China in Han-Zhao's name but holding the territory under his own control. In 319, after a dispute with the Han-Zhao emperor Liu Yao , he broke away from Han and formed his own state, Later Zhao (named as such due to Liu Yao changing his state's name from Han to Zhao, which

1482-523: The Kuchan Buddhist monk, Fotudeng , by one of his generals. Fotudeng supposedly impressed Shi Le with his supernatural abilities and predictions, so Shi Le recruited him as one of his advisors. In early 313, Wang Jun , the Jin governor of Youzhou (modern Beijing , Tianjin , and northern Hebei ), allied with the Xianbei Duan chief Duan Jilujuan (段疾陸眷) the Duke of Liaoxi , made

1560-713: The Later Zhao in 321, and despite receiving favourable treatment from its ruler, Shi Le , he would later be executed in fear of that he would rebel. Duan Pidi was a member of the Xianbei Duan clan of Liaoxi . His father, Duan Wuwuchen was the head of the clan between 303 and 311. At the start of the 4th century, the Duan clan allied with the Youzhou warlord, Wang Jun and played an important role in Wang's campaign against

1638-682: The North China Plain , plundering the local counties and commanderies although never capturing them and staying there for long. In 311, he massacred the 100,000 strong Jin imperial army in the Battle of Ningping , allowing Han forces to capture Luoyang in the Disaster of Yongjia . Shortly after, Shi Le assassinated his rival peer, Wang Mi , and absorbed his army. The Han court, fearing that he would rebel, could only reprimand and appease him. With Wang Mi’s death, Shi Le essentially controlled

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1716-415: The eunuch Yan Zhen (嚴震), but this only served to aggravate Shi Hu. In 333, Shi Le grew ill, and Shi Hu, during Shi Le's illness, began to put his sons in command of armies, preparing for a coup. When Shi Le died in the fall, Shi Hu immediately seized power in a coup, killing Cheng and Xu. Apparently pursuant to Shi Le's directions, he was secretly buried at a location unknown publicly, and an empty casket

1794-606: The Crown Prince. Shi Zun even planned to assassinate Shi Min, but after the plan leaked, Shi Min led his troops to depose him. He installed Shi Zun's half-brother, Shi Jian to the throne, but real power in Ye was held by himself and his ally, Li Nong . In the old capital, Xiangguo, another son of Shi Hu, Shi Zhi , began rallying a coalition to fight Shi Min. While controlling Shi Jian, Shi Min survived three attempts on his life, which made him deeply wary of his followers. Seeing that

1872-585: The Duke of Zhao. Subsequently, Jin Zhun, with his forces under pressure from two sides, was assassinated and succeeded by his cousin Jin Ming (靳明), who abandoned Pingyang and surrendered to Liu Yao. Shi entered the capital but did not occupy it. Shi Le burned palaces in Pingyang. With the capital heavily damaged by the coup and the subsequent battles, Liu Yao moved the capital to Chang'an . In early 319, Shi sent

1950-539: The Eastern Jin launched a series of northern expeditions to reclaim lost territory from the south. For most of his reign, Shi Zhi was besieged at Xiangguo by Ran Min's army. He was forced to make an alliance with the Former Yan and demoted his own title to King of Zhao. Despite eventually lifting the siege, he and his family were soon betrayed and slaughtered by his general, Liu Xian in 351. The last member of

2028-506: The Former Zhao capital Chang'an and retreated to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui , Gansu ) with his brother Liu Yin . In fall 328, Liu Yin tried to lead Former Zhao forces to recapture Chang'an, but Shi Hu defeated him, and subsequently marched on Shanggui, capturing it and killing Liu Xi, Liu Yin, and the other Former Zhao nobles, ending Han-Zhao. The former Former Zhao territory became Later Zhao possessions. In 330, Shi Le assumed

2106-577: The Han Chinese scholar-officials. Various ethnic group from conquered places were relocated to live around his capital, as to better control them and restore agricultural output in the north. Buddhism was also given a platform to grow as the Kuchean monk, Fotu Cheng , held a high-ranking position within Shi Le's court. Shi Le and his family had an unusual practice of adopting people into their clan,

2184-487: The Han general, Shi Le , away from the rebelling city of Yuanxiang (苑鄕, in present-day Hebei and Beijing ). The Duan forces fought Shi Le at Xiangguo but their star general, Pidi's cousin, Duan Mopei, was captured in battle. Despite being a prisoner, Mopei was treated with courtesy by Shi Le, which pleased Jilujuan. Because of this, the Duan tribe ceased their enmity with Shi Le and distanced themselves from Wang Jun. Wang Jun

2262-593: The Inspector of Bingzhou, Liu Kun lost his province to Shi Le. Liu Kun was left with nowhere to go, so Pidi sent a letter to invite him over to his base. Liu Kun took what was left of his army to meet with Pidi and the two men quickly befriended each other. Forming a brotherly bond, Pidi and Liu Kun arranged their relatives to marry one another to further cement their friendship. The next year, Pidi and Liu Kun swore an oath of alliance by smearing their lips with blood. Afterwards, they sent their respective envoys to deliver

2340-632: The Jie and other tribespeople in Ye refused to submit, he decreed an infamous culling order, calling on his Han Chinese subjects to kill any hu person they find. Shi Min personally led his army to massacre the tribes in Ye, while also ordering his generals to purge their armies of tribespeople. The Jie and hu were identified by their high noses and full beards, but many of the people killed were also mistakenly-identified Han Chinese. In total, around 200,000 people were killed. Shi Min killed Shi Jian and declared himself Emperor of Wei in 350, changing his name to Ran Min . In response, Shi Zhi proclaimed himself

2418-496: The Jin governor of Yu Province (豫州, modern eastern Henan and northwestern Anhui ) Zu Ti , and eventually the sides reached an informal détente with the Yellow River serving as the border, leading to peace and trade relations. After Zu's death in 321, however, Later Zhao forces began to again attack Jin, gradually capturing Jin territory between the Yellow River and the Huai River . In 322, Zhang Bin died—and Shi lamented at

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2496-482: The Jin prince as well. Shao Xu did so, and Shi Le immediately responded by sending his army to besiege him. However, Pidi sent Duan Wenyang to reinforce Shao Xu, so Shi Le called off his attack. In 316, Shi Le sent his nephew Shi Hu to attack the Administrator of Wei Commandery , Liu Yan (劉演). Pidi sent Wenyang to rescue Liu Yan, and while the commandery fell, Liu Yan was safely retrieved. Later that year,

2574-475: The Prince of Dai , Tuoba Yulü , was waiting to attack him there. Desperate, Pidi abandoned his wife and children and made another attempt to flee to Shao Xu, this time successfully doing so. In 320, Pidi's army was once again harassed by Mopei. Pidi pleaded to Shao Xu to assist him in getting revenge on Mopei, so the two men headed out and routed Mopei. Pidi followed up his victory by attacking Jicheng together with Duan Wenyang to reclaim his old base. This proved

2652-433: The Prince of Chengdu's military commanders. Sima Ying was then stationed at Yecheng and was the most powerful of the Jin imperial princes. After Sima Ying briefly served as crown prince in 304, he was forced to flee with his brother Emperor Hui to the capital Luoyang and was deposed by Sima Yong the Prince of Hejian. Many of his subordinates, including Ji and Gongsun Fan (公孫藩), deserted, and Gongsun eventually started

2730-547: The Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying , during the War of the Eight Princes . The Duan tribe and Wang Jun continued their association after the war, combining their efforts to stop the new and growing state of Han-Zhao. Some time around 310, Pidi's elder brother, Duan Jilujuan, succeeded Wuwuchen as chieftain following his death. Duan Pidi participated during Jilujuan's attack on Xiangguo in 312, as part of Wang Jun's plan to divert

2808-497: The Prince of Xincai, ultimately was defeated in the winter of that year, and Shi instead joined Liu Yuan , an ethnically Xiongnu former Sima Ying subordinate who had by now declared independence from Jin and established his own state Han-Zhao . Liu Yuan made him a general. For the next few years, Shi led his roving band, which he appeared to have largely recruited himself, throughout central China, losing few battles but largely interested in pillaging and not in holding territory. From

2886-525: The Shi clan, Shi Kun fled to the Eastern Jin at Jiankang , where he was put to death. Xie Fei and Wei Mengbian were two mechanical engineers under the Later Zhao who built a south-pointing chariot (also called south-pointing carriage ), a directional compass vehicle that apparently did not use magnetic principle, but was operated by use of differential gears (which apply an equal amount of torque to driving wheels rotating at different speeds), or

2964-459: The assault and routed Pidi. During this, Mopei capturing Liu Kun's son Liu Qun (劉群), who was escorting Pidi to the funeral. Mopei treated Liu Qun well and considered supporting Liu Kun into becoming the new Inspector of Youzhou. He had Liu Qun write a letter to his father asking him to work as an agent within Pidi's camp, but his envoy was caught by Pidi's scouts along the way. Liu Kun knew nothing of

3042-459: The beginning, though, Shi showed willingness to accept learned men into his army to serve as advisors and officers, unlike many other agrarian revolt leaders, and he gained many followers, mostly from the Jie and other non- Han ethnicities, but including some Han as well. After Liu Yuan's death in 310, Shi continued to submit to the authority of Liu Yuan's son and successor Liu Cong . In summer 311, Shi's prestige and power increased greatly when he

3120-594: The border, he sent his generals to launch an early attack, capturing a few cities before withdrawing. In 346, he invaded the Former Liang but was repelled, although he captured their territory south of the Yellow River . His reign was also troubled by a succession crisis that would lead to the empire's downfall. On two occasions, his crown princes attempted to kill him and usurp the throne, which led to him executing them in brutal fashion. In 349, shortly before his death, Shi Hu chose his 10-year-old son, Shi Shi to be

3198-526: The campaign, Liu Yao was instated as emperor, so Shi Le sent an envoy to congratulate him. However, Liu Yao, believing that Shi Le's rebellion was already in motion, had the envoy killed instead. Shi Le promptly declared independence as Liu Yao moved the capital to his base in Chang’an , splitting the empire into two. In 319, Shi Le proclaimed himself the King of Zhao, a title he was supposed to receive before his envoy

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3276-411: The campaign. Jilujuan died in early 318 and was succeeded by his uncle, Duan Shefuchen . Pidi left Jicheng to attend his funeral but without his knowledge, Duan Mopei manipulated Shefuchen into believing that Pidi was about to usurp his power. At Zuobeiping , Shefuchen attacked Pidi but was then betrayed by Mopei who assassinated him while his and Pidi's forces were fighting. Mopei then took command of

3354-452: The capital fell ( Disaster of Yongjia ), and Emperor Huai of Jin was captured and later executed in 313. Later that year, Shi captured the powerful Jin general Gou Xi and assassinated fellow Han general Wang, merging their forces with his own. As Shi's army grew, he increasingly trusted his young distant nephew Shi Hu as a general, and under the violent but talented Shi Hu, Shi Le's army became known for its cruel treatment of civilians but

3432-606: The capital, such as the Di and Qiang people from Guanzhong . Shi Hu had ambitions to expand the state and heavily conscripted his subjects, but his campaigns yielded very minimal success. In 338, he carried out a joint campaign with the Murong-led Former Yan to conquer the Duan-Liaoxi. After the campaign, he turned on Yan but was defeated in the Battle of Jicheng . In 339, provoked by Eastern Jin movements along

3510-509: The city of Ye in 307. After their defeat, Shi Le led his forces to join the Xiongnu -led Han state in Bing province. Under Han, Shi Le quickly rose through the ranks, attracting many Jie and hu tribes in Hebei to his cause. Like many rebel generals who joined the state, he had full control over his army as the Han court had little actual power to assert their authority. With his peers, he raided

3588-421: The earliest example being Shi Hu , a distant cousin who was adopted by Shi Le's father during their tribal years. He continued this practice after taking the throne, and his adopted relatives, especially Shi Hu, became important princes and military commanders. Near the end of his reign, Shi Le prepared his biological son, Shi Hong to take the throne in accordance with the Chinese rule of succession and handpicked

3666-523: The eastern parts of the empire, with the exception of Shandong. In 312, Shi Le departed from his practice of leading a roving army to cultivate a base in Xiangguo. He also expanded his territory by defeating the Jin governors, Wang Jun and Liu Kun . In 318, he joined forces with the prince, Liu Yao , in quelling the coup of Jin Zhun , who massacred the emperor and imperial family in Pingyang . During

3744-541: The expense of the common people, who were forced into construction work and often had their women taken away from them. On the other hand, he showed extreme leniency towards his own ministers and military generals, rarely punishing them to maintain their loyalty. The empire remained largely intact throughout his reign, with rebellions being quickly dealt with. Shi Hu reaffirmed Buddhism by continuining to show reverence to Fotu Cheng and promoting religious freedom. He also continued Shi Le's policy of relocating people to live around

3822-569: The favor of Jin, and my ambition was to destroy you. It is unfortunate that things have come to this, but I cannot respect you." Shi Le and Shi Hu had always respected Pidi, so much so that after his capture, Shi Hu lifted him up in the air and had him saluted as a gesture of companionship. Pidi was made Champion General, while Wenyang was made General of the Household Gentlemen of the Left. Despite Shi Le's favour, Pidi remained loyal to Jin. Pidi often dressed himself in clothing used in

3900-516: The first several years of his independence, Shi concentrated on annexing remaining pockets of Jin power in northern and central China. Later in 319, he attacked and defeated Duan Pidi, seizing You Province, and Duan was forced to flee to join Shao Xu the Jin governor of Ji Province (冀州, normally referring to central Hebei , but now only with control of northwestern Shandong ). In 320, Shi Le sent Shi Hu and Kong Chang against Shao, capturing him. For

3978-422: The letter when Pidi confronted him with it. Pidi had no suspicion towards Liu Kun, and Liu Kun himself assured that he had no intentions to betray Pidi. Pidi let him off at first, but his younger brother, Duan Shujun (段叔軍), was able to get his brother to heavily reconsider his actions. Pidi quickly had Liu Kun arrested. Liu Kun's son, Liu Zun (劉遵), upon hearing his father's arrest, mounted a defence in his camp but

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4056-606: The most to Shi Le's campaign successes, he should have been the crown prince or at least Grand Chanyu and was not satisfied with his title as the Prince of Zhongshan. Later that year, Shi assumed the title of emperor and made Princess Liu the empress . Shi Le, not realizing Shi Hu's intentions, still trusted Shi Hu greatly, despite warnings from his advisors Cheng Xia (the brother of Crown Prince Hong's mother Consort Cheng ) and Xu Guang , who advised him to gradually strip Shi Hu's powers and transfer them to Shi Hong. In 332, Shi Le did transfer some of Shi Hu's authority to Shi Hong and

4134-437: The new Crown Prince and took the title of Emperor. In addition to the displeasure of his other sons, many of the military generals were also not pleased with his decision as he bestowed power to a regent and the soon-to-be empress dowager . After Shi Shi ascended the throne, his half-brother, Shi Zun conspired with the generals to depose him, and among these generals was Shi Hu's adopted Han Chinese grandson, Shi Min . Shi Min

4212-656: The new Emperor of Zhao. At this point, the Later Zhao was on the verge of collapse. The Di general, Fu Hong led his forces west to occupy the Guanzhong, where his son Fu Jiàn founded the Former Qin dynasty in 351. The Xianbei general, Duan Kan , also founded his short-lived state of Duan Qi in Shandong. From the northeast, the Former Yan began an invasion to establish themselves on the Central Plains , while

4290-814: The next several years, they would wage war against each other bitterly, fighting over both their border territory and the parts of territory near the Yellow River still under Jin control. In 325, Shi Hu would defeat the Former Zhao general Liu Yue (劉岳), seizing the entire Luoyang region, which had previously been under split Jin and Former Zhao control, for Later Zhao. In 328, however, Former Zhao fought back, and forces under Liu Yao's personal command defeated Shi Hu's forces and surrounded Luoyang. Shi Le personally led his force to aid Luoyang, engaging Liu Yao in battle and capturing him. He initially treated Liu Yao with some respect and ordered Liu Yao to order his crown prince Liu Xi to surrender, but when Liu Yao refused, Shi executed him. Liu Xi, in fear of Later Zhao forces, abandoned

4368-407: The north, Sima Rui refused to punish Pidi and forbid anyone from mourning Liu Kun, as Rui and most of the court thought of Pidi as a powerful and valuable asset. Despite Sima Rui's leniency, Pidi had underestimated Liu Kun's popularity, and the breaking of his oath caused many of the Han Chinese and tribal people to lose their trust in Pidi. Seeing that support for Pidi was declining, Duan Mopei took

4446-659: The opportunity to attack him. Pidi led his army away from battle and tried to flee to Shao Xu in Leling but was badly routed by Shi Le's general Shi Yue (石越; not to be confused with the Former Qin general of the same name, Shi Yue ) at Mount Yan . Pidi retreated back to Jicheng while Mopei declared himself the new Inspector of Youzhou. Pidi remained in his city for a year, but by 319, his situation had worsened. Shi Le's general Kong Chang had taken all of Youzhou's commanderies while most of Pidi's soldiers abandoned him due to depleting rations. Pidi planned to escape through Shanggu but

4524-467: The separate governance system between the Han Chinese and non-Chinese people from the Han-Zhao dynasty . He adopted the Grand Chanyu title, tasked with managing the tribes, while also introducing new offices that specifically dealt with litigations and population movements of the tribes. He banned the word “ hu ”, opting to use “ guoren ” (國人; countryman) instead, and forbid the tribes from oppressing

4602-549: The still powerful Wang. Knowing that Wang long had dreams of becoming an emperor, since he believed that his name was prophesied as one for an emperor, Shi pretended to be ready to submit to him and offered him the imperial throne. Wang, trusting Shi's intentions, no longer defended against him. Several months later, Shi, under the guise of offering tribute, made a surprise attack on Wang's headquarters in Ji (薊, in modern Beijing ), capturing and executing Wang. (However, at this time Shi

4680-516: The throne by forcing Shi Hong to abdicate before also having him executed. When he first ascended, Shi Hu took the title of Regnant Heavenly King and later elevated it to Heavenly King in 337. He also moved the capital from Xiangguo to his base in Ye in 335. Records describe Shi Hu as a tyrant with a violent streak who spent his time indulging in women and alcohol. Most notably, he took on several grand building projects in Ye and greatly expanded his harem at

4758-613: The time that Zhang's death might prevent him from completing greater things. Later that year, Shi Hu attacked and captured Xu Kan , a minor warlord based in Taishan Commandery who vacillated between allegiance to Jin and Later Zhao. In 323, Shi Hu attacked Cao Ni —a general occupying modern Shandong who vacillated between being a Jin vassal and a Former Zhao vassal but acting independently—capturing him and annexing his domain into Later Zhao control. In 324, Later Zhao and Former Zhao began actively engaging each other, and for

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4836-420: The title "Heavenly King" ( Tian Wang ) and made his wife Lady Liu the queen and his son Shi Hong the crown prince; he granted another son, Shi Hong (石宏, note different character) the Prince of Qin the title "Grand Chanyu ," as official leader of the five nomadic tribes (collectively called in Chinese as Wu Hu ) under his rule. This drew secret ire from Shi Hu, who felt that as the general who had contributed

4914-412: The warlord, Cao Ni . War between the two Zhaos only broke out in 324, and in 328, Shi Le and Liu Yao led their armies to face each other in the pivotal Battle of Luoyang . Liu Yao was captured during the battle and later executed, while the remaining Former Zhao forces was destroyed in 329. Thus, the Later Zhao became the hegemonic power in northern China, though some areas were still out of their control;

4992-442: Was a powerful commander and favoured grandson of Shi Hu, who had adopted his father Shi Zhan, originally named Ran Zhan . To convince him into joining the plot, Shi Zun offered Shi Min the position of Crown Prince, which he accepted. Just a month into his reign, Shi Zun's forces overthrew Shi Shi, his regent and the empress dowager at Ye. However, after ascending the throne, Shi Zun reneged on his promise and appointed another nephew as

5070-433: Was able to utterly defeat the largest Jin force remaining in central China. The Jin regent Sima Yue the Prince of Donghai had died earlier that year, and the large force that he commanded was trying to escort his funeral train back to his principality of Donghai (roughly modern Linyi , Shandong ). Shi Le intercepted them at Ku (苦縣, in modern Zhoukou , Henan ), and while the Jin force was much larger than his, Shi's force

5148-754: Was also whipped into shape, rarely losing battles. In spring 312, though, Shi Le, preparing to have his army cross the Yangtze River to attack Jianye , then under the control of the Jin general Sima Rui the Prince of Langye, encountered difficulties as his army was trapped in the rain. Fearful that Jin forces were going to attack, Shi's key advisor Diao Ying (刁膺) suggested promising to submit to Sima Rui. Another advisor Zhang Bin disagreed, noting that Shi had dealt Jin too much damage previously to be able to submit to them. Instead, he advised Shi to retreat north—noting that Jin forces were so fearful of him that they would not likely attack—and that he should capture

5226-644: Was born in 274—but was not named as such, and certainly did not have the family name "Shi", as it appeared that the Jie did not use family names at the time. His likely original name is Bèi (㔨); one other possible original name was Fule (匐勒). His grandfather, named Yeyiyu (耶奕于), and his father, named Zhouhezhu (周曷朱), were minor Jie chiefs, and their tribe traditionally lived in Bing Province (并州, modern Shanxi ). Shi grew up in Wuxiang (武鄉, in modern Jinzhong , Shanxi ). In 302 or 303 , Bing Province suffered

5304-479: Was defeated by Pidi. Two of Liu Kun's generals, Pilü Song (辟閭嵩) and Han Ju (韓據), also planned to retaliate, but Pidi had the conspirators executed after their plot leaked. On 22 June, through the consent of Sima Rui's commander, Wang Dun , Pidi claimed that he had received an imperial edict to arrest Liu Kun and subsequently executed him along with his four sons and nephews via strangulation. Although Liu Kun had long helped Jin in attempting to restore its authority in

5382-580: Was eventually captured and executed by Shi Le in 314. After Wang's defeat, Shi Le appointed a man named Liu Han (劉翰) to be acting Inspector of Youzhou based in Jicheng . However, Liu Han instead fled to Duan Pidi, who he offered control over Jicheng. Pidi accepted on his own accord before occupying the city and submitting himself to Sima Rui , the paramount leader of Jin in the south. For this, Sima Rui made Pidi Jin's new Inspector of Youzhou. Pidi also urged Shi Le's Administrator of Leling , Shao Xu, to submit to

5460-507: Was instead buried in a grand ceremony at an imperial tomb. Shi Hu made Shi Hong take the throne, but would depose Shi Hong in 334 and seize the throne himself. Shi Le's descendants would all die at Shi Hu's hands. Duan Pidi Duan Pidi ( fl. 312–321) was a Duan - Xianbei chieftain during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Sixteen Kingdoms period. He was the brother of chieftain, Duan Jilujuan , and served as his general in Jin's war with

5538-408: Was killed. Prior to that, Liu Yao had also renamed the state from Han to Zhao. To distinguish the two states, historiographers refer to Liu Yao’s state as Former Zhao and Shi Le’s state as Later Zhao. In his early reign, Shi Le expanded eastwards while Liu Yao dealt with matters in the west. By 323, he defeated Duan Pidi , one of the last remaining Jin powers in the north and conquered Shandong from

5616-521: Was known as a brilliant general, but was criticized by historians for excessive cruelty during his campaigns. He also put too much power in the hands of his ambitious and even more ferocious nephew Shi Hu who, after Shi Le's death, seized power from Shi Le's son Shi Hong . Additionally, Shi Le was an important figure in the rise of Buddhism in 4th-century China, as he allowed the Kuchan monk, Fotudeng to wield considerable influence in his court. Shi Le

5694-470: Was mostly cavalry, and it surrounded and disrupted the procession of the Jin force so that it stampeded itself into oblivion. The many Jin princes and officials were captured by Shi, and Shi executed them all. Shi, from that point on, became a feared general. In summer 311, several major Han generals, including Shi, Huyan Yan , Liu Yao , and Wang Mi , converged on the Jin capital Luoyang, which had been left defenseless by Sima Yue. Without major resistance,

5772-502: Was not enough to completely repel the Zhao army. Fighting continued into the next year in 321. Shi Hu attacked Pidi at Yanci again, while Kong Chang occupied the inner cities. Duan Wenyang volunteered himself to lead a daring charge with his cavalries to drive back the invaders. Wenyang valiantly fought and killed dozens of Shi Hu's soldiers. Supposedly, even after his horse had collapsed, Wenyang fought back with his spear, and when his spear snapped, he fought with his blade. This lasted for

5850-481: Was one of the miscellaneous hu (胡; "barbarian") tribes; these tribes did not fall under the umbrella of the major ethnic groups like the Xiongnu or Xianbei . In 303, when a great famine broke out in Bing that displaced many of the Jie and other hu tribes in the region, the provincial inspector, Sima Teng , had these people captured and sold into slavery to fund his army. The Jie and hu people were scattered throughout Hebei and Shandong , including Shi Le who

5928-425: Was sold to a wealthy family in Shandong but soon attained his freedom. By 305, Shi Le had made a name for himself by becoming a bandit, and raised a personal army with his friend, Ji Sang . Taking advantage of growing resentment against the Jin government, the two joined the rebel general Gongshi Fan to avenge the Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying and later took leadership after Fan’s death, going as far as to sacking

6006-445: Was succeeded by his son Liu Can . Shortly after, however, Liu Can was killed by his father-in-law Jin Zhun in a coup, and Jin slaughtered all members of the imperial Liu household in the capital Pingyang (平陽, in modern Linfen , Shanxi ). Both Shi and Liu Yao, a cousin of Liu Cong, led their armies against Jin Zhun. Liu Yao declared himself emperor, and Shi decided, at that time, to submit to Liu Yao's authority. Liu Yao created him

6084-491: Was unable to hold You Province permanently, and it fell into the hand of the Duan chief Duan Pidi , still loyal to Jin.) In fall 315, Liu Cong officially granted Shi imperial authority in the eastern empire, formalizing Shi's hold on his domain. In early 317, Shi defeated the Jin governor of Bing Province, Liu Kun , who had previously posed a major threat to Han, and took Bing Province under his control, forcing Liu to flee to You Province to join Duan. In 318, Liu Cong died and

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