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97-468: Shields vary greatly in size and shape, ranging from large panels that protect the user's whole body to small models (such as the buckler ) that were intended for hand-to-hand-combat use. Shields also vary a great deal in thickness; whereas some shields were made of relatively deep, absorbent, wooden planking to protect soldiers from the impact of spears and crossbow bolts, others were thinner and lighter and designed mainly for deflecting blade strikes (like

194-466: A coat of arms. These designs developed into systematized heraldic devices during the High Middle Ages for purposes of battlefield identification. Even after the introduction of gunpowder and firearms to the battlefield, shields continued to be used by certain groups. In the 18th century, for example, Scottish Highland fighters liked to wield small shields known as targes , and as late as

291-512: A bulletproof glass viewing port. They are typically employed by specialist police, such as SWAT teams in high risk entry and siege scenarios, such as hostage rescue and breaching gang compounds, as well as in antiterrorism operations. Law enforcement shields often have a large signs stating "POLICE" (or the name of a force, such as "US MARSHALS") to indicate that the user is a law enforcement officer. Buckler A buckler (French bouclier 'shield', from Old French bocle, boucle ' boss ')

388-537: A certain Tawagalawa , a possible Hittite rendering of the Greek name Eteocles , as brother of the king of Ahhiyawa. In c. 1250 BC, the first wave of destruction apparently occurred in various centres of mainland Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by archaeologists. In Boeotia , Thebes was burned to the ground, around that year or slightly later. Nearby Orchomenos was not destroyed at this time but

485-399: A fighting style where each incoming blow is intercepted with the boss in order to deflect it. The Normans introduced the kite shield around the 10th century, which was rounded at the top and tapered at the bottom. This gave some protection to the user's legs, without adding too much to the total weight of the shield. The kite shield predominantly features enarmes , leather straps used to grip

582-734: A fresco at Akrotiri , on Thera island, which possibly displays many warriors in boar's tusk helmets , a feature typical of Mycenaean warfare. In the early 15th century BC, commerce intensified with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor , including Miletus and Troy , Cyprus , Lebanon , Palestine and Egypt . Early Mycenaean civilization from the Shaft Grave period generally showcases heavy influence from Minoan Crete in regards to e.g. art, infrastructure and symbols, while also maintaining some Helladic elements as well as some innovations, and some West Asian influences. A difference between Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations

679-607: A gentle curve in cross section. The heater style inspired the shape of the symbolic heraldic shield that is still used today. Eventually, specialised shapes were developed such as the bouche , which had a lance rest cut into the upper corner of the lance side, to help guide it in combat or tournament. Free standing shields called pavises , which were propped up on stands, were used by medieval crossbowmen who needed protection while reloading. In time, some armoured foot knights gave up shields entirely in favour of mobility and two-handed weapons. Other knights and common soldiers adopted

776-543: A little more difficult. The scutum originally had an oval shape, but gradually the curved tops and sides were cut to produce the familiar rectangular shape most commonly seen in the early Imperial legions. Famously, the Romans used their shields to create a tortoise-like formation called a testudo in which entire groups of soldiers would be enclosed in an armoured box to provide protection against missiles. Many ancient shield designs featured incuts of one sort or another. This

873-634: A more sophisticated sociopolitical culture of their own. The most prominent site was Mycenae , after which the culture of this era is named. Other centers of power that emerged included Pylos , Tiryns , and Midea in the Peloponnese , Orchomenos , Thebes , and Athens in Central Greece , and Iolcos in Thessaly . Mycenaean settlements also appeared in Epirus , Macedonia , on islands in

970-445: A person, Enkhelyawon , at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as probably a king. A number of local officials positioned by the wanax appear to be in charge of the districts, such as ko-re-te ( koreter , '"governor"), po-ro-ko-re-te ( prokoreter , "deputy") and the da-mo-ko-ro ( damokoros , "one who takes care of a damos"), the latter probably being appointed to take charge of

1067-566: A political reconstruction of Bronze Age Greece. Excavations at Miletus, southwest Asia Minor , indicate the existence of a Mycenaean settlement there already from c.  1450 BC , replacing the previous Minoan installations. This site became a sizable and prosperous Mycenaean center until the 12th century BC. Apart from the archaeological evidence, this is also attested in Hittite records, which indicate that Miletos (Milawata in Hittite)

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1164-758: A single ox hide supported by a wooden spine. This was used in combination with a short spear ( iklwa ) and/or club . Other African shields include Glagwa from Cameroon or Nguba from Congo . Shields for protection from armed attack are still used by many police forces around the world. These modern shields are usually intended for two broadly distinct purposes. The first type, riot shields , are used for riot control and can be made from metal or polymers such as polycarbonate Lexan or Makrolon or boPET Mylar . These typically offer protection from relatively large and low velocity projectiles, such as rocks and bottles, as well as blows from fists or clubs. Synthetic riot shields are normally transparent, allowing full use of

1261-523: A straight entry passage lined with stone. Starting in the 15th century BC, the Mycenaeans began to spread their influence throughout the Aegean and Western Anatolia. By c.  1450 BC , the palace of Knossos was ruled by a Mycenaean elite who formed a hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean culture. Mycenaeans also colonized several other Aegean islands, reaching as far as Rhodes . Thus the Mycenaeans became

1358-581: A system of combat with buckler and sword . The buckler was widely used, a simple yet effective weapon, often combined with an arming sword , falchion , or rapier . It was popular circa 1100 to 1600. The buckler had a variety of roles when it came to swordplay, but five principal means come to the fore as described in MS I.33 . Each use recognizes the shield's small size and maneuverability when dealing with light blades. In classical antiquity , bucklers on medals were either used to signify public vows rendered to

1455-541: A trade embargo imposed on Assyria. In general, in the second half of 13th century BC, trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean, most probably due to the unstable political environment there. None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states. A second destruction struck Mycenae in c. 1190 BC or shortly thereafter. This event marked

1552-520: Is a small shield , up to 45 cm (up to 18 in) in diameter, gripped in the fist with a central handle behind the boss. It became more common as a companion weapon in hand-to-hand combat during the Medieval and Renaissance periods. Its size made it poor protection against missile weapons (e.g., arrows ) but useful in deflecting the blow of an opponent's weapons, binding their arms, hindering their movements, or punching them. The seminal study of

1649-453: Is complexity and monumentality; Mycenaean craftmanship and architecture are more simplified versions of Minoan ones, but are more monumental in size. Later phases of the Mycenaean civilization showcase more sophistication, eventually coming to surpass Minoan Crete after a few centuries. At the end of the Shaft Grave era, a new and more imposing type of elite burial emerged, the tholos : large circular burial chambers with high vaulted roofs and

1746-622: Is generally accepted as a Hittite term for Mycenaean Greece ( Achaeans in Homeric Greek), but a precise geographical definition of the term cannot be drawn from the texts. During this time, the kings of Ahhiyawa were evidently capable of dealing with their Hittite counterparts both on a diplomatic and military level. Moreover, Ahhiyawa achieved considerable political influence in parts of Western Anatolia, typically by encouraging anti-Hittite uprisings and collaborating with local vassal rulers. In c.  1400 BC , Hittite records mention

1843-524: Is no satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the Mycenaean palace systems. The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict. The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders. The hypothesis of a Dorian invasion , known as such in Ancient Greek tradition , that led to the end of Mycenaean Greece, is supported by sporadic archaeological evidence such as new types of burials, in particular cist graves, and

1940-489: Is not able to solve the issue and that the majority of Hellenists believed Mycenaeans spoke a non-Indo-European Minoan language before Linear B was deciphered in 1952. Notwithstanding the above academic disputes, the mainstream consensus among modern Mycenologists is that Mycenaean civilization began around 1750 BC, earlier than the Shaft Graves, originating and evolving from the local socio-cultural landscape of

2037-421: Is the bullet-resistant ballistic shield , also called tactical shield. These shields are typically manufactured from advanced synthetics such as Kevlar and are designed to be bulletproof , or at least bullet resistant . Two types of shields are available: Tactical shields often have a firing port so that the officer holding the shield can fire a weapon while being protected by the shield, and they often have

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2134-594: The Aegean Sea , on the south-west coast of Asia Minor , and on Cyprus , while Mycenaean-influenced settlements appeared in the Levant and Italy . The Mycenaean Greeks introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure , while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script , Linear B , offers

2231-586: The Barbarian Invasions and the Middle Ages , they were normally constructed of poplar tree, lime or another split-resistant timber, covered in some instances with a material such as leather or rawhide and often reinforced with a metal boss, rim or banding. They were carried by foot soldiers, knights and cavalry. Depending on time and place, shields could be round, oval, square, rectangular, triangular, bilabial or scalloped. Sometimes they took on

2328-574: The Bronze Age . The oldest form of shield was a protection device designed to block attacks by hand weapons, such as swords, axes and maces, or ranged weapons like sling-stones and arrows. Shields have varied greatly in construction over time and place. Sometimes shields were made of metal, but wood or animal hide construction was much more common; wicker and even turtle shells have been used. Many surviving examples of metal shields are generally felt to be ceremonial rather than practical, for example

2425-550: The Dorian invasion or activities connected to the " Sea Peoples ". Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have also been suggested. The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology , including the Trojan Epic Cycle . The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally termed as the " Helladic period " by modern archaeologists, after Hellas ,

2522-615: The Early and Middle Bronze Age in mainland Greece with influences from Minoan Crete . Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age ( c.  1700 /1675 BC), a significant increase in the population and the number of settlements occurred. A number of centers of power emerged in southern mainland Greece dominated by a warrior elite society; while the typical dwellings of that era were an early type of megaron buildings, some more complex structures are classified as forerunners of

2619-525: The Levantine coast. Nevertheless, other regions on the edge of the Mycenaean world prospered, such as the Ionian islands , the northwestern Peloponnese, parts of Attica and a number of Aegean islands. The acropolis of Athens , oddly, appears to have avoided destruction. Athens and the eastern coast of Attica were still occupied in the 12th century BC, and were not destroyed or abandoned; this points to

2716-453: The Pylos archive, which is the best preserved one in the Mycenaean world, is generally taken as a representative one. The state was ruled by a king, the wanax (ϝάναξ), whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial. The wanax oversaw virtually all aspects of palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods, craftsmen and troops. Under him

2813-540: The Yetholm-type shields of the Bronze Age , or the Iron Age Battersea shield . Size and weight varied greatly. Lightly armored warriors relying on speed and surprise would generally carry light shields ( pelte ) that were either small or thin. Heavy troops might be equipped with robust shields that could cover most of the body. Many had a strap called a guige that allowed them to be slung over

2910-474: The buckler , giving rise to the term " swashbuckler ". The buckler is a small round shield, typically between 8 and 16 inches (20–40 cm) in diameter. The buckler was one of very few types of shield that were usually made of metal. Small and light, the buckler was easily carried by being hung from a belt; it gave little protection from missiles and was reserved for hand-to-hand combat where it served both for protection and offence. The buckler's use began in

3007-467: The collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the Greek Dark Ages , a recordless transitional period leading to Archaic Greece where significant shifts occurred from palace-centralized to decentralized forms of socio-economic organization (including the extensive use of iron ). Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization, among them

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3104-544: The ethnonym Danaoi ( Greek : Δαναοί ), the name of the mythical dynasty that ruled in the region of Argos, also used as an ethnonym for the Greek people by Homer. In the official records of another Bronze Age empire, that of the Hittites in Anatolia , various references from c.  1400 BC to 1220 BC mention a country named Ahhiyawa . Recent scholarship, based on textual evidence, new interpretations of

3201-519: The ethnonyms Achaeans , Danaans , and Argives to refer to the besiegers, and these names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as collective terms in his Iliad . There is an isolated reference to a-ka-wi-ja-de in the Linear B records in Knossos , Crete dated to c.  1400 BC , which presumably refers to a Mycenaean (Achaean) state on

3298-488: The roromaraugi or qauata ). Finally, shields vary greatly in shape, ranging in roundness to angularity, proportional length and width, symmetry and edge pattern; different shapes provide more optimal protection for infantry or cavalry, enhance portability, provide secondary uses such as ship protection or as a weapon and so on. In prehistory and during the era of the earliest civilisations, shields were made of wood, animal hide, woven reeds or wicker . In classical antiquity,

3395-500: The 19th century, some non-industrialized peoples (such as Zulu warriors) employed them when waging wars. In the 20th and 21st century, shields have been used by military and police units that specialize in anti-terrorist actions, hostage rescue, riot control and siege-breaking. The first prototype of the shield was believed to be created in the Late Neolithic Age . However the oldest surviving shields date to sometime in

3492-652: The Ahhiyawans. These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People . Scholars have proposed different theories on the origins of the Mycenaeans. According to one theory, Mycenaean civilization reflected the exogenous imposition of archaic Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe onto the pre-Mycenaean local population. An issue with this theory, however, is the very tenuous material and cultural relationship between Aegean and northern steppe populations during

3589-621: The Bronze Age. Another theory proposes that Mycenaean culture in Greece dates back to circa 3000 BC with Indo-European migrants entering a mainly-depopulated area; other hypotheses argue for a date as early as the seventh millennium BC (with the spread of agriculture ) and as late as 1600 BC (with the spread of chariot technology ). In a 2017 genetic study conducted by Lazaridis et al., "the Minoans and Mycenaeans were genetically similar, [but]

3686-547: The Greek mainland. Egyptian records mention a T(D)-n-j or Danaya ( Tanaju ) land for the first time c.  1437 BC , during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmoses III (r. 1479–1425 BC). This land is geographically defined in an inscription from the reign of Amenhotep III (r. c.  1390 –1352 BC), where a number of Danaya cities are mentioned, which cover the largest part of southern mainland Greece. Among them, cities such as Mycenae, Nauplion, and Thebes have been identified with certainty. Danaya has been equated with

3783-464: The Greek name for Greece . This period is divided into three subperiods: The Early Helladic (EH) period ( c.  3200 –2000 BC) was a time of prosperity with the use of metals and a growth in technology, economy and social organization. The Middle Helladic (MH) period ( c.  2000 –1700/1675 BC ) faced a slower pace of development, as well as the evolution of megaron -type dwellings and cist grave burials. The last phase of Middle Helladic,

3880-520: The Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period. Lastly, the decipherment marked the advent of an Indo-European language in the Aegean region in contrast to unrelated prior languages spoken in adjoining areas. Various collective terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th-century BC epic the Iliad in reference to the Trojan War . Homer interchangeably used

3977-618: The Hittite inscriptions, and recent surveys of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean–Anatolian contacts during this period, concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to the Mycenaean world (land of the Achaeans), or at least to a part of it. This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts, possibly referring to all regions settled by Mycenaeans or regions under direct Mycenaean political control. Another similar ethnonym, Ekwesh , in twelfth century BC Egyptian inscriptions has been commonly identified with

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4074-526: The Middle Ages and continued well into the 16th century. In Italy, the targa , parma , and rotella were used by common people, fencers and even knights. The development of plate armour made shields less and less common as it eliminated the need for a shield. Lightly armoured troops continued to use shields after men-at-arms and knights ceased to use them. Shields continued in use even after gunpowder powered weapons made them essentially obsolete on

4171-625: The Middle East, based on the considerable greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there. On the other hand, trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been limited. Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea . Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in

4268-552: The Middle Helladic III ( c.  1750 –1675 BC), along with the Late Helladic (LH) period ( c.  1700 /1675–1050 BC) roughly coincide with Mycenaean Greece. The Late Helladic period is further divided into LHI and LHII, both of which coincide with the middle phase of Mycenaean Greece ( c.  1700 /1675–1420 BC), and LHIII ( c.  1420 –1050 BC), the period of expansion, and decline of

4365-558: The Mycenaean Linear B script, a writing system adapted for the use of the ( Indo-European ) Greek language of the Late Bronze Age , demonstrated the continuity of Greek speech from the second millennium BC into the eighth century BC when a new Phoenician-derived alphabetic script emerged. Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided in

4462-495: The Mycenaean acropolis. It appears that after this first wave of destruction a short-lived revival of Mycenaean culture followed. Mycenaean Greece continues to be mentioned in international affairs, particularly in Hittite records. In c.  1220 BC , the king of Ahhiyawa is again reported to have been involved in an anti-Hittite uprising in western Anatolia. Another contemporary Hittite account reports that Ahhiyawan ships should avoid Assyrian -controlled harbors, as part of

4559-683: The Mycenaean civilization. The transition period from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Greece is known as Sub-Mycenaean ( c.  1050 –1000 BC). Based on recent research, Alex Knodell (2021) considers the beginning of Mycenaean occupation in Peloponnese in Middle Helladic III ( c.  1750 –1675 BC), and divides the whole Mycenaean time into three cultural periods: Early Mycenaean ( c.  1750 –1400 BC), Palatial Bronze Age ( c.  1400 –1200 BC), and Postpalatial Bronze Age ( c.  1200 –1050 BC). The decipherment of

4656-471: The Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers or populations that already resided in Mycenaean Greece. Recent archaeological findings tend to favor the latter scenario. Additional theories, concerning natural factors , such as climate change, droughts, or earthquakes have also been proposed. Another theory considers the decline of the Mycenaean civilization as a manifestation of a common pattern for

4753-478: The Mycenaeans differed from Minoans in deriving additional ancestry from an ultimate source related to the hunter–gatherers of eastern Europe and Siberia, introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of either the Eurasian steppe or Armenia." However, Lazaridis et al. admit that their research "does not settle th[e] debate" on Mycenaean origins. Historian Bernard Sergent notes that archaeology alone

4850-592: The Near East, Apulia in Italy and Spain . From that time period ( c.  1400 BC ), the palace of Knossos has yielded the earliest records of the Greek Linear B script, based on the previous Linear A of the Minoans. The use of the new script spread in mainland Greece and offers valuable insight into the administrative network of the palatial centers. However, the unearthed records are too fragmentary for

4947-593: The acropolis of Mycenae, in particular the Grave Circles A and B , signified the elevation of a native Greek-speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long-distance sea trade. During this period, the Mycenaean centers witnessed increased contact with the outside world, especially with the Cyclades and the Minoan centers on the island of Crete . Mycenaean presence appears to be also depicted in

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5044-689: The activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern Mediterranean. They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia and the Levant and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c. 1175 BC. One of the ethnic groups that comprised these people were the Eqwesh , a name that appears to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions. Alternative scenarios propose that the fall of Mycenaean Greece

5141-463: The aspis to create the Greek phalanx formation. Their shields offered protection not only for themselves but for their comrades to their left. Examples of Germanic wooden shields circa 350 BC – 500 AD survive from weapons sacrifices in Danish bogs. The heavily armored Roman legionaries carried large shields ( scuta ) that could provide far more protection, but made swift movement

5238-504: The battlefield. In the 18th century, the Scottish clans used a small, round targe that was partially effective against the firearms of the time, although it was arguably more often used against British infantry bayonets and cavalry swords in close-in fighting. During the 19th century, non-industrial cultures with little access to guns were still using war shields. Zulu warriors carried large lightweight shields called Ishlangu made from

5335-401: The body from head to foot, the figure-of-eight and tower shield offered most of the warrior's body a good deal of protection in hand-to-hand combat. The Ancient Greek hoplites used a round, bowl-shaped wooden shield that was reinforced with bronze and called an aspis . The aspis was also the longest-lasting and most famous and influential of all of the ancient Greek shields. The Spartans used

5432-416: The coast of southern Anatolia, displays the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece needed, such as copper and tin for the production of bronze products. A chief export of the Mycenaeans was olive oil , which was a multi-purpose product. Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between Mycenaean Greece and

5529-489: The commune. A council of elders was chaired, the ke-ro-si-ja (cf. γερουσία, gerousía ). The basileus , who in later Greek society was the name of the king, refers to communal officials. In general, Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, da-mo . These last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to

5626-691: The decline of many ancient civilizations: the Minoan, the Harappan and the Western Roman Empire; the reason for the decline is migration due to overpopulation. The period following the end of Mycenaean Greece, c. 1100–800 BC, is generally termed the " Greek Dark Ages ". Mycenaean palatial states, or centrally organized palace-operating polities, are recorded in ancient Greek literature and mythology (e.g., Iliad , Catalogue of Ships ) and confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann . Each Mycenaean kingdom

5723-664: The dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power. The Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece. The vast majority of the preserved Linear B records deal with administrative issues and give the impression that Mycenaean palatial administration was highly systematized, featuring thoroughly consistent language, terminology, tax calculations, and distribution logistics. Considering this sense of uniformity,

5820-482: The dominant power of the region, marking the beginning of the Mycenaean 'Koine' era (from Greek : Κοινή , common), a highly uniform culture that spread in mainland Greece and the Aegean. From the early 14th century BC, Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities in the Mediterranean after the Minoan collapse. The trade routes were expanded further, reaching Cyprus , Amman in

5917-563: The drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia, the building of a large dam outside Tiryns, and the drainage of the swamp in the Nemea valley. Also noticeable is the construction of harbors, such as the harbor of Pylos, that were capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era vessels like the one found at Uluburun . The Mycenaean economy also featured large-scale manufacturing as testified by

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6014-846: The eastern Black Sea coast. Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially pottery, were exported to southern Italy , Sicily and the Aeolian Islands . Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia , as well as southern Spain . Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations, like in Central Europe, such as in Bavaria , Germany , where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed. Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from

6111-409: The end of Mycenae as a major power. The site was then reoccupied, but on a smaller scale. A recent study suggests that neither of the palaces at Tiryns or Midea were destroyed by an earthquake, and further studies have shown that upwards of fifty arrowheads were found scattered in the destruction debris at Midea perhaps indicating that the destruction was caused by an assault. The palace of Pylos , in

6208-492: The existence of new decentralized coastal and maritime networks there. It is attested by the cemetery of Perati that lasted a century and showed imports from Cyclades , Dodecanese , Crete, Cyprus, Egypt and Syria, as well as by the Late Helladic IIIC ( c.  1210 –1040 BC) cemetery of Drivlia at Porto Rafti ; located 2 km west of Perati. This indicates that Attica participated in long-distance trade, and

6305-491: The extent of workshop complexes that have been discovered, the largest known to date being the recent ceramic and hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia , next to Athens, that produced tableware, textiles, sails, and ropes for export and shipbuilding . The most famous project of the Mycenaean era was the network of roads in the Peloponnese . This appears to have facilitated the speedy deployment of troops—for example,

6402-547: The first written records of the Greek language , and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic pantheon . Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace -centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social, and economic systems . At the head of this society was the king, known as a wanax . Mycenaean Greece perished with

6499-539: The form of kites or flatirons, or had rounded tops on a rectangular base with perhaps an eye-hole, to look through when used with combat. The shield was held by a central grip or by straps with some going over or around the user's arm and one or more being held by the hand. Often shields were decorated with a painted pattern or an animal representation to show their army or clan. It was common for Aristocratic officials such and knights , barons , dukes , and kings to have their shields painted with customary designs known as

6596-407: The fortifications in various sites. In some cases, arrangements were also made for the creation of subterranean passages which led to underground cisterns. Tiryns, Midea and Athens expanded their defences with new cyclopean-style walls. The extension program in Mycenae almost doubled the fortified area of the citadel. To this phase of extension belongs the impressive Lion Gate , the main entrance into

6693-765: The gods for the safety of a prince, or that he was esteemed the defender and protector of his people: these were called votive bucklers , and were hung at altars, etc. Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean Greece (or the Mycenaean civilization ) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece , spanning the period from approximately 1750 to 1050 BC. It represents the first advanced and distinctively Greek civilization in mainland Greece with its palatial states, urban organization, works of art, and writing system. The Mycenaeans were mainland Greek peoples who were likely stimulated by their contact with insular Minoan Crete and other Mediterranean cultures to develop

6790-502: The head of this society was the king, known as wanax (Linear B: wa-na-ka) in Mycenaean Greek . All powers were vested in him, as the main landlord and spiritual and military leader. At the same time he was an entrepreneur and trader and was aided by a network of high officials. The presence of Ahhiyawa in western Anatolia is mentioned in various Hittite accounts from c.  1400 to c.  1220 BC . Ahhiyawa

6887-573: The later palaces. In a number of sites, defensive walls were also erected. Meanwhile, new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed, which display a great variety of luxurious objects. Among the various burial types, the shaft grave became the most common form of elite burial, a feature that gave the name to the early period of Mycenaean Greece. Among the Mycenaean elite, deceased men were usually laid to rest in gold masks and funerary armor, and women in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments. The royal shaft graves next to

6984-457: The latter being the northernmost Mycenaean center. Knossos in Crete also became a Mycenaean center, where the former Minoan complex underwent a number of adjustments, including the addition of a throne room . These centers were based on a rigid network of bureaucracy where administrative competencies were classified into various sections and offices according to specialization of work and trades. At

7081-468: The military activities of an Ahhiyawan warlord, Attarsiya , possibly related to the mythic character of Atreus . Attarsiya attacked Hittite vassals in western Anatolia including Madduwatta . Later, in c. 1315 BC, an anti-Hittite rebellion headed by Arzawa , a Hittite vassal state, received support from Ahhiyawa. Meanwhile, Ahhiyawa appears to be in control of a number of islands in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological evidence. During

7178-450: The palace, but the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored. Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded on a few occasions. The palatial centers organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry. The magnitude of some projects indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers. Most notable of them are

7275-464: The palace. Among those who could be found in the palace were well-to-do high officials, who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo , such as craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants. Occupying a lower rung of the social ladder were the slaves, do-e-ro , ( cf. δοῦλος , doúlos ). These are recorded in

7372-507: The rations given to the dependent personnel. The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries, and the tallying of produced goods. For instance, the Knossos tablets record c. 80,000–100,000 sheep grazing in central Crete , and the quantity of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring, as well as how this wool

7469-446: The reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support nor deny the existence of a larger Mycenaean state. On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King". Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible. If some kind of united political entity existed,

7566-436: The region of Wilusa , and later invaded the island of Lesbos , which then passed into Ahhiyawan control. Scholars have speculated that the mythic tradition of the Trojan War could have a historical basis in the political turmoil of this era. As a result of this instability, the Hittite king initiated correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to restore peace in the region. The Hittite record mentions

7663-420: The reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III (c. 1267–1237 BC), the king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a "Great King" and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers: the kings of Egypt , Babylonia and Assyria . At that time, another anti-Hittite movement, led by Piyama-Radu , broke out and was supported by the king of Ahhiyawa. Piyama-Radu caused major unrest which may have extended to

7760-723: The remnants of a Mycenaean road, along with what appears to have been a Mycenaean defensive wall on the Isthmus of Corinth . The Mycenaean era saw the zenith of infrastructure engineering in Greece, and this appears not to have been limited to the Argive plain. Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy of Mycenaean Greece. The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials, such as metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials, in addition to local products: oil, perfume, wine, wool and pottery. International trade of that time

7857-480: The shield tight to the arm. Used by foot and mounted troops alike, it gradually came to replace the round shield as the common choice until the end of the 12th century, when more efficient limb armour allowed the shields to grow shorter, and be entirely replaced by the 14th century. As body armour improved, knight 's shields became smaller, leading to the familiar heater shield style. Both kite and heater style shields were made of several layers of laminated wood, with

7954-421: The shield without obstructing vision. Similarly, metal riot shields often have a small window at eye level for this purpose. These riot shields are most commonly used to block and push back crowds when the users stand in a "wall" to block protesters, and to protect against shrapnel , projectiles like stones and bricks , molotov cocktails , and during hand-to-hand combat . The second type of modern police shield

8051-469: The southwestern Peloponnese, was destroyed in c. 1180 BC. The Linear B archives found there, preserved by the heat of the fire that destroyed the palace, mention hasty defence preparations due to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force. As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease, especially Boeotia, Argolis and Messenia . Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and

8148-471: The state of nearby Orchomenos. Moreover, the palace of Mycenae appeared to have ruled over a territory two to three times the size of the other palatial states in Bronze Age Greece. Its territory would have also included adjacent centers, including Tiryns and Nauplion , which could plausibly be ruled by a member of Mycenae's ruling dynasty. The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for

8245-475: The texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities. The Mycenaean economy, given its pre-monetary nature, was a palace economy , focusing on the redistribution of goods, commodities and labor by a central administration. The preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries and commodities, the organization of land management and

8342-478: The topic has been undertaken by Herbert Schmidt and has devised the following typology: with the cross-section of the buckler further refining these types: The combination of the two classifiers determines the buckler type. Thus a Type Ia buckler is a round flat buckler; a Type IId buckler is a square wavy buckler, which would be typical of an Italian targa MS I.33 , considered the earliest extant armed-combat manual, (around 1300) contains an early description of

8439-517: The use of a new dialect of Greek, the Doric one. It appears that the Dorians moved southward gradually over a number of years and devastated the territory, until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centers. A new type of ceramic also appeared, called "Barbarian Ware" because it was attributed to invaders from the north. On the other hand, the collapse of Mycenaean Greece coincides with

8536-560: The user's back when not in use or on horseback. During the 14th–13th century BC, the Sards or Shardana , working as mercenaries for the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II , utilized either large or small round shields against the Hittites . The Mycenaean Greeks used two types of shields: the "figure-of-eight" shield and a rectangular "tower" shield. These shields were made primarily from a wicker frame and then reinforced with leather. Covering

8633-411: Was a result of internal disturbances which led to internecine warfare among the Mycenaean states or civil unrest in a number of states, as a result of the strict hierarchical social system and the ideology of the wanax. In general, due to the obscure archaeological picture in 12th–11th century BC Greece, there is a continuing controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies that succeeded

8730-522: Was abandoned, while the Boeotian fortifications of Gla displays evidence for a targeted destruction as only the four gates and the monumental building, called the Melathron, were burned before the site was abandoned. In the Peloponnese, a number of buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned. These incidents appear to have prompted the massive strengthening and expansion of

8827-465: Was allocated. The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce, where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production, notably in textiles. Nevertheless, palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed. Thus, sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from

8924-479: Was also incorporated in a mainland-looking network. The site of Mycenae experienced a gradual loss of political and economic status, while Tiryns , also in the Argolid region, expanded its settlement and became the largest local center during the post-palatial period, in Late Helladic IIIC, c. 1200–1050 BC. The reasons for the end of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated among scholars. At present, there

9021-440: Was done to accommodate the shaft of a spear, thus facilitating tactics requiring the soldiers to stand close together forming a wall of shields . Typical in the early European Middle Ages were round shields with light, non-splitting wood like linden , fir , alder , or poplar , usually reinforced with leather cover on one or both sides and occasionally metal rims, encircling a metal shield boss . These light shields suited

9118-418: Was governed from the palace, which exercised control over most, if not all, industries within its realm. The palatial territory was divided into several sub-regions, each headed by its provincial center. Each province was further divided in smaller districts, the damoi . A number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom. For instance, Gla , located in the region of Boeotia, belonged to

9215-482: Was not only conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants. Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical artifacts, textual references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region: Canaanites , Kassites , Mitanni , Assyrians , and Egyptians . The 14th century BC Uluburun shipwreck , off

9312-421: Was the lāwāgetas ("the leader of the people"), whose role appears mainly religious. His activities possibly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the second-in-command. Both wanax and lāwāgetas were at the head of a military aristocracy known as the eqeta ("companions" or "followers"). The land possessed by the wanax is usually the témenos (te-me-no). There is also at least one instance of

9409-859: Was the most important base for Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor. Mycenaean presence also reached the adjacent sites of Iasus and Ephesus . Meanwhile, imposing palaces were built in the main Mycenaean centers of the mainland. The earliest palace structures were megaron-type buildings, such as the Menelaion in Sparta , Lakonia . Palaces proper are datable from c.  1400 BC , when Cyclopean fortifications were erected at Mycenae and nearby Tiryns . Additional palaces were built in Midea and Pylos in Peloponnese , Athens , Eleusis , Thebes and Orchomenos in Central Greece and Iolcos , in Thessaly ,

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