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55-398: The shiitake ( / ʃ ɪ ˈ t ɑː k eɪ , ˌ ʃ iː ɪ -, - k i / ; Japanese: [ɕiꜜːtake] Chinquapin, Chinese/black forest mushrooms or Lentinula edodes ) is an edible mushroom native to East Asia , which is cultivated and consumed around the globe. The fungus was first described scientifically as Agaricus edodes by Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1877. It

110-412: A 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth. Mushrooms may be cooked before consumption to improve texture and lower trace levels of toxic hydrazines. Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food. Mushrooms do not go mushy with long term cooking because

165-525: A Wok" explains how the definition of wok hei varies from cook to cook and how difficult it is to translate the term. Some define it as the "taste of the wok," a "harmony of taste," etc.: "I think of wok hay as the breath of a wok—when a wok breathes energy into a stir-fry, giving foods a unique concentrated flavor and aroma." When read in Mandarin, the second character is transliterated as qi ( ch'i according to its Wade-Giles romanization, so wok hei

220-555: A challenge to cultivate. Some mushrooms, particularly mycorrhizal species, have not yet been successfully cultivated. In 2019, world production of commercial mushrooms and recorded truffle collection reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization was 11.9 million tonnes , led by China with 75% of the total: Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw. Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death. Although in

275-409: A high flame while being stirred and tossed quickly. The distinct taste of wok hei is partially imbued into the metal of the wok itself from previous cooking sessions and brought out again when cooking over high heat. In practical terms, the flavour imparted by chemical compounds results from caramelization , Maillard reactions , and the partial combustion of oil that come from charring and searing of

330-471: A long history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries. A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such as chanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular, yet remains

385-632: A much greater loss of chlorophyll , soluble protein, soluble sugar and vitamin C. The method which affected these values the least was steaming. Stir frying for five minutes and stir frying combined with boiling caused the highest loss of glucosinolates , which according to this study are best preserved by steaming. A study performed by the Spanish National Research Counsel stir-fried the broccoli for only three minutes and thirty seconds and found that nutritional value of these broccoli samples varied depending on which cooking oil

440-678: A reasonable level. The English-language term "stir-fry" was coined and introduced in Buwei Yang Chao , How to Cook and Eat in Chinese (1945) to translate the Chinese term chǎo 炒. Although using "stir-fry" as a noun is commonplace in English, in Chinese, chǎo is used as a verb or adjective only. The Chinese character 炒 is attested in inscriptions on bronze vessels from the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC), but not in

495-593: A sixth-century agricultural manual, including in a recipe for scrambled eggs . In sources from the Tang dynasty (618–907), chao refers not to a cooking technique, but to a method for roasting tea leaves . It reappears as a cooking method in a dozen recipes from the Song dynasty (960–1279). The Song period is when the Chinese started to use vegetable oil for frying instead of animal fats . Until then, vegetable oil had been used chiefly in lamps. Historically, stir frying

550-617: A small amount of cooking oil is added down the side of the wok (a traditional expression is 热锅冷油 "hot wok, cold oil") followed by dry seasonings such as ginger , garlic , scallions , or shallots . The seasonings are tossed with a spatula until they are fragrant , then other ingredients are added, beginning with the ones taking the longest to cook, such as meat or tofu . When the meat and vegetables are nearly cooked, combinations of soy sauce , vinegar, wine, salt, or sugar may be added, along with thickeners such as cornstarch, water chestnut flour, or arrowroot . A single ingredient, especially

605-499: A species is the only safe way to ensure edibility, and the only safeguard against possible poisoning. Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy. Mycophagy ( / m aɪ ˈ k ɒ f ə dʒ i / ), the act of consuming mushrooms, dates back to ancient times. Edible mushroom species have been found in association with 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile . Ötzi ,

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660-460: A vegetable, may be stir-fried without the step of adding another ingredient, or two or more ingredients may be stir-fried to make a single dish. Although large leaf vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach, do not need to be cut into small pieces, for dishes which combine ingredients, they should all be cut to roughly the same size and shape. Wok hei (simplified Chinese: 镬气 ; traditional Chinese: 鑊氣 ; Jyutping: wok hei ) romanization

715-445: A wok, and stir frying remained popular because it was quick." Many families had difficulty fitting a family dinner into their crowded schedules but found that stir-fried dishes could be prepared in as little as fifteen minutes. Broadly speaking, there are two primary techniques: chao and bao . Both techniques use high heat, but chao adds a liquid and the ingredients are softer, whereas bao stir fries are more crispy because of

770-608: Is ergocalciferol , or vitamin D 2 . This is not the same as cholecalciferol , called vitamin D 3 , which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D 2 has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used in food fortification and nutritional supplements , vitamin D 3 is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products. Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets ; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as

825-627: Is a cooking technique in which ingredients are fried in a small amount of very hot oil while being stirred or tossed in a wok . The technique originated in China and in recent centuries has spread into other parts of Asia and the West. It is similar to sautéing in Western cooking technique. Wok frying may have been used as early as the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) for drying grain, not for cooking. It

880-605: Is based on the Cantonese Chinese pronunciation of the phrase; when literally translated into English, it can be translated as "wok thermal radiation " or, metaphorically, as the "breath of the wok". The phrase "breath of a wok" is a poetic translation Grace Young first coined in her cookbook The Wisdom of the Chinese Kitchen . In her book, The Breath of a Wok , Young further explores the ideas and concepts of wok hei . An essay called "Wok Hay: The Breath of

935-399: Is done so quickly, it can be called 'blitz-cooking.' Although using the term "stir-fry" as a noun is commonplace in English, in Chinese, the word 炒 (chǎo) is used as a verb or adjective only. In the West, stir frying spread from Chinese family and restaurant kitchens into general use. One popular cookbook noted that in the "health-conscious 1970s" suddenly it seemed that "everyone was buying

990-412: Is first heated to a dull red glow over a high fire. The oil, seasonings, and meats are then added in rapid succession. The food is continually tossed, stopping only to add other ingredients such as broths, vegetables, or more seasonings. The purpose of bao is to highlight natural tastes, so minimal seasoning is added. Because of the high heat, bao is ideal for small amounts of food that cook quickly, so

1045-530: Is no scientific evidence that consuming " medicinal mushrooms " cures or lowers the risk of human diseases. Mushrooms can appear either below ground ( hypogeous ) or above ground ( epigeous ) and can be picked by hand. Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma . Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake , are sources of umami flavor. Mushroom cultivation has

1100-405: Is not without health risks . Recent studies show that heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are formed by stir frying meat at very high temperatures . These chemicals may cause DNA changes that may contribute to increased risk of cancer . The process of stir-frying is used in the preparation of some Chinese herbal medicines under the term 'dry-frying'. Stir frying

1155-560: Is seen in the Records of Longquan County ( 龍泉縣志 ) compiled by He Zhan ( 何澹 ) in 1209 during the Song dynasty in China. The 185-word description of shiitake cultivation from that literature was later cross-referenced many times and eventually adapted in a book by a Japanese horticulturist Satō Chūryō ( 佐藤中陵 ) in 1796, the first book on shiitake cultivation in Japan. The Japanese cultivated

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1210-624: Is similar to the reaction in humans , where vitamin D 3 is synthesized after exposure to sunlight. Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the FDA 's daily recommendation of vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much. Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D 2 . The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms

1265-544: Is sometimes rendered as wok chi in Western cookbooks) is the flavour , tastes , and "essence" imparted by a hot wok on food during stir frying. Out of the Eight Culinary Traditions of China , wok hei is encountered the most in Cantonese cuisine , whereas it may not even be an accepted concept in some of the others. To impart wok hei the traditional way, the food is cooked in a seasoned wok over

1320-642: Is the Latin word for "edible". It is also commonly called " sawtooth oak mushroom", "black forest mushroom", "black mushroom", " golden oak mushroom", or "oakwood mushroom". Shiitake grow in groups on the decaying wood of deciduous trees , particularly shii and other chinquapins , chestnut , oak , maple , beech , sweetgum , poplar , hornbeam , ironwood , and mulberry . Its natural distribution includes warm and moist climates in Southeast Asia . The earliest written record of shiitake cultivation

1375-533: Is the white mushroom ( Agaricus bisporus ). In a 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) reference serving, Agaricus mushrooms provide 92 kilojoules (22 kilocalories) of food energy and are 92% water, 3% carbohydrates , 3% protein , and 0.3% fat . They contain high levels of riboflavin , niacin , and pantothenic acid , with moderate content of phosphorus (see table). Otherwise, raw white mushrooms generally have low amounts of essential nutrients . Although cooking by boiling lowers mushroom water content only 1%,

1430-464: The Suiyuan shidan ". By the late Qing, most Chinese kitchens were equipped with a wok range ( chaozao 炒灶 or paotai zao 炮臺灶) convenient for stir-frying because it had a large hole in the middle to insert the bottom of a wok into the flames. Stir frying was brought to America by early Chinese immigrants , and has been used in non-Asian cuisine. The term "stir fry" as a translation for "chao"

1485-476: The Maillard reaction . The chao (炒) technique is similar to the Western technique of sautéing . There are regional variations in the amount and type of oil, the ratio of oil to other liquids, the combinations of ingredients, the use of hot peppers, and such, but the same basic procedure is followed in all parts of the country. First the wok is heated to a high temperature, and just as or before it smokes,

1540-592: The chitin that gives most of the structure to a mushroom does not break down until 380 °C (716 °F) which is not reached in any normal cooking. Mushrooms will usually last a few days, longer if refrigerated. Mushrooms can be frozen, but are best cooked first. They can also be dried or pickled . Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments for diseases , yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved as drugs or medical treatments . Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into

1595-411: The mummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom. The Chinese value mushrooms for their supposed medicinal properties as well as for food. Ancient Romans and Greeks , particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat. The Forme of Cury ,

1650-692: The 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification, these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genus Amanita , particularly Amanita phalloides , the death cap. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and cause food poisoning . Great care should therefore be taken when eating any fungus for

1705-474: The basis for a kind of vegetarian dashi , and as an ingredient in many steamed and simmered dishes. Two prized varieties are produced in cooler temperatures: One high-grade variety is called dōnggū ( 冬菇 ) (literally "winter mushroom") in Chinese, or donko ( 冬子 ) in Japanese. The most highly prized variety is called huāgū ( 花菇 ) (literally "flower mushroom") in Chinese, due to

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1760-752: The body including face and scalp, appearing about 24 hours after consumption, possibly worsening by sun exposure and disappearing after 3 to 21 days. This effect – presumably caused by the polysaccharide , lentinan – is more common in East Asia, but may be growing in occurrence in Europe as shiitake consumption increases. Thorough cooking may eliminate the allergenicity . Fresh and dried shiitake have many uses in East and Southeast Asia. In Chinese cuisine, they are used in many dishes, including soups, braises, and stir-fried vegetable dishes such as Buddha's delight . In Japan , they are served in miso soup , used as

1815-455: The contents per 100 grams for several nutrients increase appreciably, especially for dietary minerals . The content of vitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed to sunlight or purposely treated with artificial ultraviolet light , even after harvesting and processed into dry powder. When exposed to UV light before or after harvest , mushrooms convert their large concentrations of ergosterol into vitamin D 2 . This

1870-559: The domain of traditional medicine for which there is no direct high-quality clinical evidence of efficacy. Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti- disease properties exist, such as for polysaccharide-K or lentinan . Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potential adjuvants for radiation treatments and chemotherapy . Stir frying Stir frying ( Chinese : 炒 ; pinyin : chǎo ; Wade–Giles : ch'ao ; Cantonese Yale : cháau )

1925-419: The first time, and only small quantities should be consumed in case of individual allergies or reactions. Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals , including arsenic and iron , sometimes in lethal concentrations. On the other hand, some cooking preparations may reduce

1980-806: The flower-like pattern of cracks in the cap. In a 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) reference serving, raw shiitake mushrooms provide 141 kilojoules (34 kilocalories) of food energy and are 90% water, 7% carbohydrates , 2% protein and less than 1% fat . Raw shiitake mushrooms contain moderate levels of some dietary minerals . Like all mushrooms, shiitakes produce vitamin D2 upon exposure of their internal ergosterol to ultraviolet B (UVB) rays from sunlight or broadband UVB fluorescent tubes. Edible mushroom To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctly identified before their edibility can be assumed. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of

2035-440: The food at very high heat in excess of 200 °C (392 °F). Aside from flavour, wok hei also manifests itself in the texture and smell of the cooked items. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the bao technique ( Chinese : 爆 ; pinyin : bào ; lit. 'pop', 'explosion') of stir-frying on a high flame was typical of cuisine from the northern Chinese province of Shandong . The wok

2090-523: The former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin . Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated . Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets ; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the prized truffle , matsutake , and morel ) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers. Despite long-term use in folk medicine , there

2145-690: The genus Amanita , particularly A. phalloides , the death cap. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in others; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid and cause food poisoning . Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals within polluted locations, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals including arsenic and iron —sometimes in lethal concentrations. Several varieties of fungi contain psychedelic compounds—the magic mushrooms —while variously resembling non- psychoactive species. The most commonly consumed for recreational use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis , with

2200-513: The juices do not flow out of the items. Meat is coated with egg white or starch in order to contain the juices. When the food is cooked it is poured and ladled out of the wok. The wok must then be quickly rinsed to prevent food residues from charring and burning to the wok bottom because of residual heat. A larger amount of cooking fat with a high smoke point , such as refined plant oils, is often used in bao . The main ingredients are usually cut into smaller pieces to aid in cooking. Writers extol

2255-487: The late Ming and Qing (1644–1912) periods also favored speedy methods. But even as stir frying became an important method in Chinese cuisine, it did not replace other cooking techniques. For instance, "only five or six of over 100 recipes recorded in the sixteenth-century novel Jin Ping Mei are stir fry recipes and wok dishes accounted for only 16 percent of the recipes in the most famous eighteenth century recipe book,

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2310-602: The mushroom by cutting shii trees with axes and placing the logs by trees that were already growing shiitake or contained shiitake spores . Before 1982, the Japan Islands' variety of these mushrooms could only be grown in traditional locations using ancient methods. A 1982 report on the budding and growth of the Japanese variety revealed opportunities for commercial cultivation in the United States. Shiitake are widely cultivated worldwide, contributing about 25% of

2365-410: The prized truffle , matsutake , and morel ) may be collected on a smaller scale by private gatherers, and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers. Mushrooms can be purchased fresh when in season, and many species are also sold dried. Before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be correctly identified . Accurate determination of and proper identification of

2420-511: The quick cooking at high heat for retaining color, texture, and nutritional value. One study compared the effects of boiling, steaming, and stir frying on bamboo shoots . Boiling and steaming decreased the amount of protein , soluble sugar, ash, and total free amino acids by more than one-third. Stir-frying bamboo shoots increased their fat content by 528.57% due to the addition of oil. With 78.9% retention, stir frying preserved significantly more vitamin C than boiling. Taking into consideration

2475-468: The sense of stir frying. Dry stirring was used in the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) to parch grain. Although there are no surviving records of Han dynasty stir frying, archaeological evidence of woks and the tendency to slice food thinly indicate that the technique was likely used for cooking. The term initially appears in the sense of "stir frying" in the Qimin Yaoshu (齊民要術),

2530-514: The total retention of nutrients, the study concluded that stir frying is the method best suited for bamboo shoots. Similar results were found for stir frying red peppers. Another study examined the nutritional value of broccoli after five common cooking techniques: steaming, boiling, microwaving, stir-frying and stir-frying followed by deep frying. The study found that the two most common methods of home cooking in China, stir-frying and stir-frying combined with deep frying in soybean oil , resulted in

2585-433: The total yearly production of mushrooms. Commercially, shiitake mushrooms are typically grown in conditions similar to their natural environment on either artificial substrate or hardwood logs, such as oak. Rarely, consumption of raw or slightly cooked shiitake mushrooms may cause an allergic reaction called "shiitake dermatitis", including an erythematous , micro- papular , streaky pruriginous rash that occurs all over

2640-482: The toxicity of slightly poisonous mushrooms enough to be consumed as survival food, for example, many prized fungi will cause gastric upset when eaten uncooked, such as the Morchella genus. Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to contain psychedelic drugs—the so-called magic mushrooms —yet resemble perfectly edible, non- psychoactive species. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to

2695-405: The uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis , with the former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin . Both have the potential to induce in

2750-485: The user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours. Higher mushroom consumption has been associated with lower risk of breast cancer . As of 2021 , mushroom consumption has not been shown to conclusively affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases . A commonly eaten mushroom

2805-400: Was coined in the 1945 book How To Cook and Eat in Chinese , by Buwei Yang Chao. The book told the reader: Roughly speaking, ch'ao may be defined as a big-fire-shallow-fat-continual-stirring-quick-frying of cut-up material with wet seasoning. We shall call it 'stir-fry' or 'stir' for short. The nearest to this in western cooking is sauté . ... Because stir-frying has such critical timing and

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2860-426: Was not as important a technique as boiling or steaming , since the oil needed for stir frying was expensive. The technique became increasingly popular in the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644), in part because the wood and charcoal used to fire stoves were becoming increasingly expensive near urban centers, and stir-frying could cook food quickly without wasting fuel. "The increasingly commercial nature of city life" in

2915-591: Was not until the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) that the wok reached its modern shape and allowed quick cooking in hot oil. However, there is research indicating that metal woks and stir-frying of dishes were already popular in the Song dynasty (960–1279), and stir-frying as a cooking technique is mentioned in the 6th-century AD Qimin Yaoshu . Stir frying has been recommended as a healthy and appealing method of preparing vegetables, meats, and fish, provided calories are kept at

2970-438: Was placed in the genus Lentinula by David Pegler in 1976. The fungus has acquired an extensive synonymy in its taxonomic history: The mushroom's Japanese name shiitake ( 椎茸 ) is a compound word composed of shii ( 椎 , Castanopsis ) , for the tree Castanopsis cuspidata that provides the dead logs on which it is typically cultivated, and take ( 茸 , "mushroom") . The specific epithet edodes

3025-463: Was used. Comparing these results to an uncooked sample, the study found that phenolics and vitamin C were reduced more than glucosinolates and minerals. Stir-frying with soybean, peanut, safflower or extra virgin olive oil did not reduce glucosinolates , and broccoli stir-fried with extra virgin olive oil or sunflower oil had vitamin C levels similar to uncooked broccoli . These levels were significantly lower with other edible oils . Stir frying

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