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60-642: They traditionally speak the Shoshoni language , part of the Numic languages branch of the large Uto-Aztecan language family. The Shoshone were sometimes called the Snake Indians by neighboring tribes and early American explorers. Their peoples have become members of federally recognized tribes throughout their traditional areas of settlement, often co-located with the Northern Paiute people of

120-616: A band of Shoshone within the Eastern Shoshone and the Northern Shoshone . Before the reservation era, they traditionally lived in the central Sawtooth Range of Idaho and the mountains of what is now northwest Wyoming. Bands were very fluid and nomadic, and they often interacted with and intermarried other bands of Shoshone . Today the Tukudeka are enrolled in the federally recognized Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of

180-507: A band of Tukudika in what is now Yellowstone in 1834, he found them to be well-clothed, accompanied by pack-dogs, and possessing a quantity of skins for trading: "Here we found a few Snake Indians comprising 6 men, 7 women, and 8 or 10 children who were the only inhabitants of this lonely spot. They were all neatly clothed in dressed deer and Sheep skins of the best quality and all seemed to be perfectly contented and happy. ... Their personal property consisted of one old butcher knife nearly worn to

240-402: A ceremonial leader stationed in a pod along one of the corral walls. At the end of the trap, the sheep would run up a ramp into an elevated cattle-guard-like trap, with widely spaced timbers . They would fall off the timbers, with their feet hanging into air. Thus immobilized, the hunters would kill the sheep with clubs, spears, or projectiles. Some of these traps were used through the 1800s, with

300-413: A large number of deer, elk and sheep skins from them of the finest quality, and three large, neatly dressed panther skins, in return for awls and axes, kettles, tobacco, ammunition, etc. ... One of them drew a map of the country around us on a white elk skin with a piece of charcoal, after which he explained the direction of the different passes, streams, etc." The Tukudika economy was largely derived from

360-408: A typical Numic vowel inventory of five vowels. In addition, there is the common diphthong /ai/ , which functions as a simple vowel and varies rather freely with [e] ; however, certain morphemes always contain [ai] and others always contain [e] . All vowels occur as short or long, but [aiː] / [eː] is rare. Shoshoni has a typical Numic consonant inventory. Shoshoni syllables are of

420-483: A word; however, primary stress tends to fall on the second syllable if that syllable is long. For instance, natsattamahkantɨn [ˈnazattamaxandɨ] "tied up" bears primary stress on the first syllable; however, kottoohkwa [kotˈtoːxˌwa] "made a fire" bears primary stress on the second syllable, with long vowel [oː] , instead of the first syllable with short vowel [o] . As in other Numic languages, stress in Shoshoni

480-531: Is duku , which also translates to "meat" according to anthropologist Demetri Shimkin. So the name may also mean "eaters of meat." They were named for the bighorn mountain sheep ( Ovis canadensis ), which they commonly hunted. They are also called Mountain Shoshone or Toyahini, the mountaineers. The Tukudeka speak the Shoshone language , as well as English . Shoshone is a Central Numic language in

540-620: Is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, spoken in the Western United States by the Shoshone people. Shoshoni is primarily spoken in the Great Basin , in areas of Wyoming , Utah , Nevada , and Idaho . The consonant inventory of Shoshoni is rather small, but a much wider range of surface forms of these phonemes appear in the spoken language. The language has six vowels, distinguished by length. Shoshoni

600-406: Is a primarily suffixing language. Many nouns in Shoshoni have an absolutive suffix (unrelated to the absolutive case ). The absolutive suffix is normally dropped when the noun is the first element in a compound, when the noun is followed by a suffix or postposition, or when the noun is incorporated into a verb. For instance, the independent noun sɨhɨpin "willow" has the absolutive suffix -pin ;

660-431: Is a strongly suffixing language, and it inflects for nominal number and case and for verbal aspect and tense using suffixes. Word order is relatively free but shows a preference toward SOV order. The endonyms newe ta̲i̲kwappe and Sosoni' ta̲i̲kwappe mean "the people's language" and "the Shoshoni language," respectively. Shoshoni is classified as threatened, although attempts at revitalization are underway. Shoshoni

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720-438: Is commonly marked through reduplication of the first syllable of the verb stem, so that singular kimma "come" becomes kikimma in the dual (and remains kima in the plural). A suppletive form is often used for the dual or plural forms of the verb; for instance, singular yaa "carry" becomes hima in both the dual and plural. Suppletion and reduplication frequently work in tandem to express number: singular nukki "run" becomes

780-423: Is distributed based on mora-counting. Short Shoshoni vowels have one mora, while long vowels and vowel clusters ending in [a] have two morae. Following the primary stress, every other mora receives secondary stress. If stress falls on the second mora in a long vowel, the stress is transferred to the first mora in the long vowel and mora counting continues from there. For example, natsattamahkantɨn "tied up" bears

840-420: Is marked by suffixes on all human nouns and optionally on other animate nouns. The regular suffixes for number are listed in the table below. The Shoshoni singular is unmarked. Case is also marked by suffixes, which vary depending on the noun. Subjective case is unmarked. Many nouns also have a zero objective case marker; other possible objective markers are -tta , -a , and -i . These suffixes correspond with

900-484: Is the northernmost member of the large Uto-Aztecan language family, which includes nearly sixty living languages, spoken in the Western United States down through Mexico and into El Salvador . Shoshoni belongs to the Numic subbranch of Uto-Aztecan. The word Numic comes from the cognate word in all Numic languages for "person". For example, in Shoshoni the word is neme [nɨw̃ɨ] or, depending on

960-412: Is the typical word order for Shoshoni. nɨ I hunanna badger puinnu see nɨ hunanna puinnu I badger see "I saw a badger" nɨwɨ person sakkuhtɨn there paittsɨkkinna was hollering nɨwɨ sakkuhtɨn paittsɨkkinna person there {was hollering} "the person was making a fuss there" In ditransitive sentences, the direct and indirect object are marked with

1020-523: Is used with verb stems to form nouns used for the purpose of the verb: katɨnnompɨh "chair" is derived from katɨ "sit"; puinompɨh "binoculars" is derived from pui "see". The characterization suffix -kantɨn be used with a root noun to derive a noun characterized by the root: hupiakantɨn "singer" is derived from hupia "song"; puhakantɨn "shaman" is derived from puha "power", as one characterized by power. Shoshoni verbs may mark for number, mainly through reduplication or suppletion . The dual

1080-669: The 2000 U.S. census , some 12,000 persons identified as Shoshone. As of 2020 there were in the USA 17,918 Shoshone including 3,638 in Nevada and 3,491 in Wyoming. Shoshone people are divided into traditional bands based both on their homelands and primary food sources. These include: Shoshoni language Shoshoni , also written as Shoshoni-Gosiute and Shoshone ( / ʃ oʊ ˈ ʃ oʊ n i / shoh- SHOH -nee ; Shoshoni: soni ' ta̲i̲kwappe , newe ta̲i̲kwappe or neme ta̲i̲kwappeh ),

1140-714: The American Civil War travelers continued to migrate westward along the Westward Expansion Trails . When the Shoshone, along with the Utes participated in attacks on the mail route that ran west out of Fort Laramie , the mail route had to be relocated south of the trail through Wyoming . Allied with the Bannock , to whom they were related, the Shoshone fought against the United States in

1200-562: The Bear River Massacre (1863) when U.S. forces attacked and killed an estimated 250 Northwestern Shoshone , who were at their winter encampment in present-day Franklin County, Idaho . A large number of the dead were non-combatants, including children, deliberately killed by the soldiers. This was the highest number of deaths which the Shoshone suffered at the hands of United States forces. 21 US soldiers were also killed. During

1260-545: The Bible were translated in 1986. As of 2012, Idaho State University offers elementary, intermediate, and conversational Shoshoni language classes, in a 20-year project to preserve the language. Open-source Shosoni audio is available online to complement classroom instruction, as part of the university's long-standing Shoshoni Language Project. The Shoshone-Bannock Tribe teaches Shoshoni to its children and adults as part of its Language and Culture Preservation Program. On

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1320-556: The Central Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Speakers are scattered from central Nevada to central Wyoming. The largest numbers of Shoshoni speakers live on the federally recognized Duck Valley Indian Reservation , located on the border of Nevada and Idaho; and Goshute Reservation in Utah. Idaho State University also offers Shoshoni-language classes. The Shoshone are a Native American tribe that originated in

1380-789: The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., for study. In 1994, the institution repatriated the remains to the Fort Hall Idaho Shoshone-Bannock Tribe . In 2008 the Northwestern Band of the Shoshone Nation acquired the site of the Bear River Massacre and some surrounding land. They wanted to protect the holy land and to build a memorial to the massacre, the largest their nation had suffered. "In partnership with

1440-745: The Snake War from 1864 to 1868. They fought U.S. forces together in 1878 in the Bannock War . In 1876, by contrast, the Shoshone fought alongside the U.S. Army in the Battle of the Rosebud against their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Cheyenne . In 1879 a band of approximately 300 Eastern Shoshone (known as " Sheepeaters ") became involved in the Sheepeater Indian War . It was

1500-798: The Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, elders have been active in digital language archiving. Shoshoni is taught using Dr. Steven Greymorning's Accelerated Second Language Acquisition techniques. A summer program known as the Shoshone/Goshute Youth Language Apprenticeship Program (SYLAP), held at the University of Utah 's Center for American Indian Languages since 2009, has been featured on NPR 's Weekend Edition . Shoshoni youth serve as interns, assisting with digitization of Shoshoni language recordings and documentation from

1560-668: The first transcontinental railroad in 1869 was followed by European-American immigrants arriving in unprecedented numbers in the territory. Indian Affairs 1875 gave the Shoshone as 1,740 in Idaho and Montana, 1,945 in Nevada, 700 in Wyoming and 244 (besides those intermixed with the Bannock) in Oregon. The census of 1910 returned 3,840 Shoshone. In 1937, the Bureau of Indian Affairs counted 3,650 Northern Shoshone and 1,201 Western Shoshone. As of

1620-642: The 1860s and 1870s, with the Cook-Folsom expedition and the Raynolds expedition describing horse-mounted Bannock-speaking Indians as Sheepeaters. In 1870, Wind River Indian Reservation agent G.W. Fleming stated that Chief Washakie allowed a band of "Toorooreka" Sheepeaters to share in the annual annuity. This likely represents the period when the Wyoming Tukudika merged with the Washakie band of

1680-531: The American West Heritage Center and state leaders in Idaho and Utah, the tribe has developed public/private partnerships to advance tribal cultural preservation and economic development goals." They have become leaders in developing tribal renewable energy. The Shoshone were scattered over a vast area and divided into many bands, therefore many estimates of their population did not cover the entire tribe. In 1820 Jedidiah Morse estimated

1740-741: The Eastern Shoshone to reside on the Wind River Indian Reservation. Later anthropologists Are Hultkrantz and Demetri Shimkin reported that members of the Tukudika formed an enclave within the Trout Creek area near Fort Washakie . Early Yellowstone National Park Superintendent Norris claimed that the Sheepeater were the only year-round residents of Yellowstone National Park. Writer Susan Hughes doubts that

1800-605: The Fort Hall Reservation of Idaho and the Eastern Shoshone of the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming. "Tukudeka" is spelled several ways, including Tukadüka , Tukudika , Tukku Tikka'a , Tukkuikka , Tukkutikka , and Tukuarika , and is translated as "Eaters of White Meat," "Eaters of Mountain Sheep," "Mountain Sheepeaters," or simply, "Sheepeaters." A Shoshone word for bighorn ram

1860-503: The Great Basin. The name "Shoshone" comes from Sosoni , a Shoshone word for high-growing grasses. Some neighboring tribes call the Shoshone "Grass House People," based on their traditional homes made from sosoni . Shoshones call themselves Newe , meaning "People". Meriwether Lewis recorded the tribe as the "Sosonees or snake Indians" in 1805. The Shoshoni language is spoken by approximately 1,000 people today. It belongs to

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1920-686: The Northern Uto-Aztecan language family. The Tukudeka's traditional homelands were along the Salmon River in the Sawtooth Mountains, as well as southern Montana , and Yellowstone in Wyoming . Europeans first entered their territory in 1824. American and British trappers hunted beavers in the 1840s. In 1860, gold was discovered, and non-native prospectors flooded the region. In the 1860s, Indian agents estimated

1980-528: The Sheepeaters could have live year-round in the park due to snow levels. She also points out to the fact that Jones expedition guide Togote, a Tukudika who is namesake of Togwotee Pass , was only familiar with the southern portion of Yellowstone Park, as evidence that Sheepeaters didn't live year-round in Yellowstone. Since Tukudika were aware migratory patterns of deer and elk and bighorn sheep, they likely migrated out of high elevations to spend winter at

2040-530: The Shoshone population at 60,000 and 20,000 Eastern Shoshone . According to Alexander Ross the Shoshone were on the west side of the Rocky Mountains what the Sioux were on the east side - the most powerful tribe - and he estimated that in 1855 the Shoshone numbered 36,000 people. They were much reduced in number after they had suffered infectious disease epidemics and warfare. According to Joseph Lane

2100-429: The Shoshone were divided into many bands and it was almost impossible to ascertain their exact numbers. According to Indian Affairs 1859 in Utah there were 4,500 Shoshones. Indian Affairs 1866 reported in Utah 4,500 eastern Bannock and Shoshone intermingled and 3,800 western and northwestern Shoshone as well as 2,000 Shoshone in Nevada and 2,500 Shoshone in Idaho, as well as an unspecified number in Oregon. The completion of

2160-622: The Tukudeka and Lemhi Shoshone , to be 1,200. In 1879 five Chinese miners were killed near Loon Creek . Despite a complete lack of evidence, the Tukudeka were blamed for the murders, and the US Cavalry attacked the tribe in what would be called the Sheepeater War . Fifty-one Tukudeka were captured and relocated to the Fort Hall Reservation . In 1913, Billings, Montana dentist W.F. "Doc" Allen claimed to have found

2220-608: The Wick R. Miller collection, in order to make the materials available for tribal members. The program released the first Shoshone language video game in August 2013. In July 2012, Blackfoot High School in Southeastern Idaho announced it would offer Shoshoni language classes. The Chief Tahgee Elementary Academy, a Shoshone-Bannock charter school teaching English and Shoshoni, opened at Fort Hall in 2013. Shoshoni has

2280-552: The Wind River Range. Bighorn sheep corral traps relied on a deep understanding of bighorn sheep behavior. The Tukudika built traps in the Wind River Range and the Abaroka Range which were shaped in spirals (shaped something like a bighorn sheep horn) with the opening to the trap facing downhill. The traps were located on slopes near bighorn sheep summer range. Hunters would approach the sheep from above, then spook

2340-416: The animals downhill. Since sheep have an instinct to find security at high ground, the sheep would run downhill, then traverse the slope, before running uphill again. With luck, this movement of the animals would direct them straight into the mouth of a corral trap, usually constructed out of logs. The hunters would then spook the animals further into the narrowing part of the spiral trap, with the assistance of

2400-482: The back, two old, shattered fusees which had long since become useless for want of ammunition, a small stone pot and about thirty dogs on which they carried their skins, clothing, provisions, etc., on their hunting excursions. They were well armed with bows and arrows pointed with obsidian. The bows were beautifully wrought from sheep, buffalo and elk horns, secured with deer and elk sinews, and ornamented with porcupine quills, and generally about three feet long. We obtained

2460-701: The dialect, newe [nɨwɨ] , in Timbisha it is nümü [nɨwɨ] , and in Southern Paiute, nuwuvi [nuwuβi] . Shoshoni's closest relatives are the Central Numic languages Timbisha and Comanche . Timbisha, or Panamint, is spoken in southeastern California by members of the Timbisha Shoshone Tribe , but it is considered a distinct language from Shoshoni. The Comanche split from the Shoshone around 1700, and consonant changes over

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2520-413: The form (C)V(V)(C). For instance: nɨkka "dance" (CVC CV), ɨkkoi "sleep" (VC CVV), and paa "water" (CVV). Shoshoni does not allow onset clusters. Typical Shoshoni roots are of the form CV(V)CV(V). Examples include kasa "wing" and papi "older brother." Stress in Shoshoni is regular but not distinctive. Primary stress usually falls on the first syllable (more specifically, the first mora ) of

2580-480: The horses. In contrast, horse-mounted Shoshones were much more dependent on bison hunting on the plains, which offered a major source of wealth for trade, but was also a resource that other tribes coveted, leading to conflict through much of the 1800s. The Tukudika were smaller in numbers than the other Shoshone, but judging by Russel's account lived a prosperous life by relying on a variety of food resources. The Sheepeater were potentially subject to misidentification by

2640-432: The indigenous people over competition for territory and resources. Wars occurred throughout the second half of the 19th century. The Northern Shoshone, led by Chief Pocatello , fought during the 1860s against settlers in Idaho (where the city Pocatello was named for him). As more settlers encroached on Shoshone hunting territory, the natives raided farms and ranches for food and attacked immigrants. The warfare resulted in

2700-679: The large numbers of mountain sheep that the Tukudika were expert at hunting, whether with their sheep horn bows, or with corral traps in the shape of a spiral. They also consumed fish caught in the mountain streams using weirs. In contrast to the horse-mounted buffalo-hunting Shoshone, the Tukudika did not rely on horses. Their pedestrian way of life was well-suited for spending summer at high-elevations where migratory animals like bighorn sheep, elk, and deer abounded, and they could also harvest calorie-rich edible plants like white bark pine nuts. The lifestyle meant they weren't limited to plains areas where they needed large numbers of horses or forage to graze

2760-721: The last Indian war fought in the Pacific Northwest region of the present-day United States. In 1911 a small group of Bannock under a leader named Mike Daggett , also known as "Shoshone Mike," killed four ranchers in Washoe County, Nevada . The settlers formed a posse and went out after the Native Americans. They caught up with the Bannock band on February 25, 1911, and in a gun battle killed Mike Daggett and seven members of his band. They lost one man of

2820-470: The last-living Sheepeater living among the Crow Tribe, a 115-year-old woman whom he communicated with in sign language. His book The Sheepeaters was later considered by later anthropologist Ake Hultkrantz to be almost entirely fabricated, and a source of myths and folklore describing the Tukudika as impoverished pygmies without guns or horses. In contrast, when fur trapper Osborne Russell encountered

2880-399: The late 20th century. In the early 21st century, fluent speakers number only several hundred to a few thousand people, while an additional population of about 1,000 know the language to some degree but are not fluent. The Duck Valley and Gosiute communities have established programs to teach the language to their children. Ethnologue lists Shoshoni as "threatened" as it notes that many of

2940-427: The mouth of mountain canyons where they spill out to the plains, or in the basins themselves. Some big game wintering areas, such as Sunlight Basin and the upper Wind River Valley, are nearly snow-free in winter. Other recent excavations have suggested that certain snow-free areas within the Wind River Range may have been used by Indians in mid-winter for up to 12,000 years. The Tukudika are known for three innovations:

3000-517: The objective case. The indirect object can occur before the direct object, or vice versa. For example, in nɨ tsuhnippɨha satiia uttuhkwa "I gave the bone to the dog", tsuhnippɨh "bone" and satii "dog" take the objective case suffix -a . The subject is not a mandatory component of a grammatical Shoshoni sentence. Therefore, impersonal sentences without subjects are allowed; those sentences have an object-verb word order. ɨtɨinna Sheepeaters The Tukudeka or Mountain Sheepeaters are

3060-404: The past few centuries have limited mutual intelligibility of Comanche and Shoshoni. Principal dialects of Shoshoni are Western Shoshoni in Nevada, Gosiute in western Utah, Northern Shoshoni in southern Idaho and northern Utah, and Eastern Shoshoni in Wyoming. The main differences between these dialects are phonological. The number of people who speak Shoshoni has been steadily dwindling since

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3120-418: The posse, Ed Hogle in the Battle of Kelley Creek . The posse captured a baby, two children and a young woman. (The three older captives died of diseases within a year; the baby, Mary Jo Estep , died in 1992). A rancher donated the partial remains of three adult males, two adult females, two adolescent males, and three children (believed to be Mike Daggett and his family, according to contemporary accounts) to

3180-593: The possessive case markers -n , -ttan or -n , -an , or -n (in Western Shoshoni; this last suffix also appears as -an in Gosiute and is replaced by -in in Northern Shoshoni). These case markers can be predicted only to a degree based on phonology of the noun stem. Nominal derivational morphology is also often achieved through suffixing. For instance, the instrumental suffix -(n)nompɨh

3240-534: The reduplicated nunukki in the dual and the suppleted nutaa in the plural; singular yɨtsɨ "fly" is reduplicated, suppleted dual yoyoti and suppleted plural yoti . Shoshoni uses prefixes to add a specific instrumental element to a verb. For instance, the instrumental prefix to"- "with the hand or fist" can be used with the verb tsima "scrape" to yield tottsima "wipe," as in pɨn puihkatti tottsimma yakaitɨn "he wiped at his eyes, crying". Common instrumental prefixes include: Subject-object-verb (SOV)

3300-460: The remains still visible in the late 20th century. Tukudika also hunted sheep by driving them into deep drifts of spring snow. Shoshones in bighorn sheep habitat manufactured the sheephorn bow over a period of two to three months by boiling and straightening the spiral horn of the bighorn sheep. In geothermal areas, hot springs may have served to heat the horn. The horn would be shaped over time and backed with sinew . When completed, this bow

3360-443: The root loses this suffix in the form sɨhɨykwi "to gather willows". The correlation between any particular noun stem and which of the seven absolutive suffixes it has is irregular and unpredictable. The absolutive suffixes are as follows: Shoshoni is a nominative-accusative language. Shoshoni nouns inflect for three cases ( subjective , objective , and possessive ) and for three numbers (singular, dual, and plural). Number

3420-463: The speakers are 50 and older. UNESCO has classified the Shoshoni language as "severely endangered" in Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. The language is still being taught to children in a small number of isolated locations. The tribes have a strong interest in language revitalization, but efforts to preserve the language are scattered, with little coordination. However, literacy in Shoshoni is increasing. Shoshoni dictionaries have been published and portions of

3480-481: The steatite or soapstone cooking pot, the corral trap for hunting bighorn sheep, and the sheep horn bow. In the Wind River Range and Absaroka Ranges of Wyoming, Tukudika used a cooking pot carved out of soft soapstone . The pot could hold up to a gallon, and be placed directly in the fire. Because of the high-specific heat of soapstone, the pot could be pulled out of the fire and maintain boiling temperatures for some time. Tukudika quarries of soap stone were found in

3540-594: The stress pattern [ˈnazatˌtamaˌxandɨ] , with stress falling on every other mora. With some dialectical variation, mora counting resets at the border between stems in compound words. Final syllables need not be stressed and may undergo optional final vowel devoicing. Given here are a few examples of regular, well-documented phonological rules in Shoshoni: Shoshoni is a synthetic , agglutinative language, in which words, especially verbs, tend to be complex with several morphemes strung together. Shoshoni

3600-706: The western Great Basin and spread north and east into present-day Idaho and Wyoming. By 1500, some Eastern Shoshone had crossed the Rocky Mountains into the Great Plains . After 1750, warfare and pressure from the Blackfoot , Crow , Lakota , Cheyenne , and Arapaho pushed Eastern Shoshone south and westward. Some of them moved as far south as Texas, emerging as the Comanche by 1700. As more European American settlers migrated west, tensions rose with

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