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165-540: The Sioux or Oceti Sakowin ( / s uː / SOO ; Dakota / Lakota : Očhéthi Šakówiŋ [oˈtʃʰeːtʰi ʃaˈkoːwĩ] ) are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations people from the Great Plains of North America. The Sioux have two major linguistic divisions : the Dakota and Lakota peoples (translation: "friend" or "ally" referring to the alliances between the bands). Collectively, they are

330-674: A 2,200 acres (3.4 sq mi) sacred site in the Black Hills of South Dakota, into federal Indian trust status. On March 14, four days after Pe' Sla was granted a Federal Indian trust, the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux tribe released a statement which acknowledged that 1,900 acres (3.0 sq mi) of Pe' Sla (also known as Reynolds Prairie) was jointly purchased in 2012 by the Rosebud, Shakopee Mdewakanton, Crow Creek, and Standing Rock Sioux Tribes. On October 30,

495-617: A bill allowing agencies to submit paperwork in regards to methods and efforts of allowing Native American tribes to participate in and influence decisions in United States policies regarding tribal life. In 2012, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya conducted a twelve-day tour of Native American lands, to determine how well the United States was following the United Nations Declaration on

660-684: A blow so severe on the Pawnee during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. By the 1850s, the Lakota were known as the most powerful tribe on the Plains. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 was signed on September 17, 1851, between U.S. treaty commissioners and representatives of the Cheyenne , Sioux, Arapaho , Crow , Assiniboine , Mandan , Hidatsa , and Arikara Nations. The treaty

825-473: A comparative table of the various writing systems conceived over time for the Dakota languages, cf. the specific section of the article Sioux language . Dakota has five oral vowels, /a e i o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ã ĩ ũ/ . In respect to phonology, Eastern and Western Dakota differ particularly in consonant clusters. The table below gives the possible consonant clusters and shows the differences between

990-465: A concept. Abstract intransitive ; (wa-) Does not specify an object and is further generalized as a concept. Abstract possessive ; (wa- + -ki; & wa- + hd-) Specifies that the action is upon one’s own, and is further generalized as a concept. Abstract transitive ; (wa-) Requires an object, and is further generalized as a concept. Auxiliary ; Follows an unconjugated verb and modifies it. Benefactive ; Dative 2; (-kíči-) An action that

1155-605: A dual Dakota/Lakota program, offering an Associate of Science degree in Dakhótiyapi. The Cankdeska Cikana Community College on the Spirit Lake reservation offers a Dakota Language Certification. A Dakota-English Dictionary by Stephen Return Riggs is a historic resource for referencing dialect and historic documents. The accuracy of the work is disputed, as Riggs left provisions in the English copy untranslated in

1320-429: A ground burial. A platform to rest the body was put up on trees or, alternately, placed on four upright poles to elevate the body from the ground. The bodies were securely wrapped in blankets and cloths, along with many of the deceased personal belongings and were always placed with their head pointed towards the south. Mourning individuals spoke to the body and offer food as if it were still alive. This practice, along with

1485-468: A noun, signifies the different parts of one's self. For example, the possessive natural article pronoun mi- , which means "my," can be added to nouns such as "eye," in miíšta , or "words," in mióie; for inalienable objects such as one's body or intellectual property, and in some cases for possessive form of relative terms such as "my little brother," misúŋ, or "my daughter," mičhúŋkši. (However most relative terms are in their base form possessive; or use

1650-677: A number of creation stories within the tribes. One widely noted creation story for Dakota people is at Bdóte , the area where the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers meet. Lakota people relate to Wind Cave in South Dakota as their site of emergence. The ancestral Sioux most likely lived in the Central Mississippi Valley region and later in Minnesota for at least two or three thousand years. The ancestors of

1815-475: A sacred clown. Black Elk , a famous Heyókȟa said: "Only those who have had visions of the thunder beings of the west can act as heyokas. They have sacred power and they share some of this with all the people, but they do it through funny actions". Historical leadership organization The thiyóšpaye of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ assembled each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, and participate in

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1980-765: A significant portion of southern Minnesota. In the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands of the Dakota ceded 21 million acres for $ 1,665,000, or about 7.5 cents an acre. However, the American government kept more than 80% of the funds with only the interest (5% for 50 years) being paid to the Dakota. The U.S. set aside two reservations for the Sioux along the Minnesota River , each about 20 miles (30 km) wide and 70 miles (110 km) long. Later

2145-400: A small rattlesnake ( massasauga , Sistrurus ). An alternative explanation is derivation from an (Algonquian) exonym na·towe·ssiw (plural na·towe·ssiwak ), from a verb * -a·towe· meaning "to speak a foreign language". The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag (singular Bwaan ), meaning "roasters". Presumably, this refers to the style of cooking

2310-698: A standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, which never came. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne for the Black Hills , who had earlier taken the region from the Kiowa . The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country , and the Lakota made the Black Hills their home. As their territory expanded, so did the number of rival groups they encountered. They secured an alliance with

2475-558: A state park. The Black Hills , the United States' oldest mountain range , is 125 miles (201 km) long and 65 miles (105 km) wide stretching across South Dakota and Wyoming. The Black Hills derived its name from the black image that is produced by the "thick forest of pine and spruce trees" that covers the hills and was given the name by the Native Americans belonging to the Lakota (Sioux). The Lakota Sioux settled

2640-534: A unanimous decision, the Sioux tribal council refused to accept $ 106 million award to them. The tribal council argued that "the Supreme Court decision should be vacated on the grounds that the Tribe was not represented in those proceedings." On July 18, 1981, Mario Gonzalez filed a lawsuit asking for 7,300,000 acres (11,400 sq mi) of the Black Hills in South Dakota and $ 11 billion in damages. The claim

2805-446: Is commonly called reduplication. Examples are as such; waštéšte "good things", p’op’ó "it is very foggy", and šigšíčA "bad things, ugly things" In order to show possession in Dakota, a possessive pronoun may be prefixed whichever noun is being possessed. Two forms of possessive nouns occur, the natural class and the artificial or alienable class. Natural class pronouns express possession that cannot be alienated, and when prefixed to

2970-450: Is done in kind to one another. Reflexive ; (-ič’i- & -ihd-) An action done to or for one's self. Stative ; A verb describing a state of being. Transitive ; An action that requires an object or subject. In the Dakota language, affixes are used to change the meaning of words by attaching to the root word. Affixes can be added to both nouns and verbs, and they come in the form of prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes are added to

3135-544: Is for someone else’s benefit or on their behalf. Causative ; (-ye, -ya & -yaŋ) An action that causes something or someone to change state or action. Dative 1; (-ki- & -khi-) An action that indicates an object or recipient. Ditransitive ; An action that requires two objects, whether the actor and another or two items. Intransitive ; An action that doesn’t need an object. Possessive ; (-ki-, & -hd-) An action that targets one's own. Reciprocal ; (-kičhi- +/- -pi) An action between two parties that

3300-568: Is in fact lexically closer to the Lakota language than it is to Santee-Sisseton. The following table gives some examples: Yankton-Yanktonai has the same three ablaut grades as Lakota (a, e, iŋ), while in Santee-Sisseton there are only two (a, e). This significantly impacts word forms, especially in fast speech and it is another reason why Yankton-Yanktonai has better mutual intelligibility with Lakota than with Santee-Sisseton. Some examples: There are other grammatical differences between

3465-452: Is symbolic of the relationships of the natural world, the elements, humans and the spiritual beings that maintain the cycle of the universe. Dreams can also be a means of establishing relationships with spirits and are important to the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ. One can gain supernatural powers through dreams. Dreaming of the Wakíŋyaŋ (thunder beings) is believed to involuntarily make someone a Heyókȟa ,

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3630-554: Is the highest summit of the Black Hills at 7,242 feet (2,207 m) and is located within the 1,247,209 acres (1,949 sq mi) of the Black Hills National Forest . Black Elk Peak is a Lakota religious landmark and a popular hiking destination. The presence of Native Americans in the Black Hills is represented by the Crazy Horse Memorial , which is a carved sculpture in the mountains of

3795-551: Is the work of Dr. Clifford Canku as well as Michael Simon. The Dakhóta Iápi Okhódakičhiye worked with Dakota language speakers, teachers, and linguists to create their Speak Dakota! textbooks, which are a fully illustrated series that is linguistically and pedagogically consistent. In 2023, the group released a free Dakota language app called, Dakhód Iápi Wičhóie Wówapi , containing more than 28,000 words and 40,000 audio files to aid in pronunciation. Black Hills land claim The United States government illegally seized

3960-545: The 1825 Treaty of Prairie du Chien with the Dakota, Ojibwe, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, Sac and Fox, Iowa, Potawatomi, and Ottawa tribes. In the 1830 Treaty of Prairie de Chien , the Western Dakota (Yankton, Yanktonai) ceded their lands along the Des Moines river to the American government. Living in what is now southeastern South Dakota, the leaders of the Western Dakota signed the Treaty of April 19, 1858, which created

4125-593: The 7th Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of Little Big Horn . The armed conflicts with the U.S. ended with the Wounded Knee Massacre . Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the Dakota and Lakota continued to fight for their treaty rights , including the Wounded Knee incident , Dakota Access Pipeline protests , and the 1980 Supreme Court case United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians , in which

4290-609: The Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana . The Lakota , also called Teton ( Thítȟuŋwaŋ ; possibly "dwellers on the prairie"), are the westernmost Sioux, known for their Plains Indians hunting and warrior culture . With the arrival of the horse in the 18th century, the Lakota become a powerful tribe on the Northern Plains by the 1850s. They fought the U.S. Army in the Sioux Wars and defeated

4455-707: The Black Hills  – a mountain range in the US states of South Dakota and Wyoming – from the Sioux Nation in 1876. The land was pledged to the Sioux Nation in the Treaty of Fort Laramie , but a few years later the United States illegally seized the land and nullified the treaty with the Indian Appropriations Bill of 1876, without the tribe's consent. That bill "denied

4620-481: The Ghost Dance helped individuals mourn and connect the spirits of the deceased with those who were alive. The only time a body was buried in the ground right after their death was if the individual was murdered: the deceased were placed in the ground with their heads towards the south, while faced down along with a piece of fat in their mouth. Contemporary Funeral Practices According to Pat Janis, director of

4785-649: The Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804 near the Missouri River . The two men refrained from entering the Black Hills because they lacked governmental jurisdiction and feared the deadly consequences of entering sacred land. Moreover, the Teton Sioux first embraced Lewis and Clark with gifts and food and in return, Lewis and Clark notified the Indians that the United States controlled much of the Sioux lands under

4950-531: The North Platte River and Yellowstone River and obligated the government to pay $ 50,000 annually. However, a United States military war against Red Cloud proved to be a victory for the Sioux, which resulted in the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) . This treaty ultimately protected the Black Hills from white settlement. The treaty was violated when gold was discovered in Montana in 1874. However,

5115-484: The Oglala Sioux Tribe 's Burial Assistance Program, funeral practices of communities today are often a mix of traditions and contemporary Christian practices. While tree burials and scaffold burials are not practiced anymore, it is also now rare to see families observe a four-day wake period. Instead, the families opt for one- or two-day wake periods which include a funeral feast for all the community. Added to

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5280-533: The Ojibwe throughout the 18th century pushed the Dakota west into southern Minnesota, where the Western Dakota (Yankton, Yanktonai) and Lakota (Teton) lived. In the 19th century, the Dakota signed land cession treaties with the United States for much of their Minnesota lands. The United States' failure to make treaty payments or provide rations on time led to starvation and the Dakota War of 1862 , which resulted in

5445-474: The Oregon Trail and allowed roads and forts to be built in their territories in return for promises of an annuity in the amount of fifty thousand dollars for fifty years. The treaty should also "make an effective and lasting peace" among the eight tribes, each of them often at odds with a number of the others. The treaty was broken almost immediately after its inception by the Lakota and Cheyenne attacking

5610-729: The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community funded a Dakota language training program called Voices of Our Ancestors, which provided four tribal communities with the resources to immerse 20 students in 40 hours a week of language. The tribal colleges which participated were Cankdeska Cikana Community College in North Dakota, Fort Peck Community College in Montana, the Nebraska Indian Community College Santee campus and

5775-643: The Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate college was established. They maintain a Dakota studies program, with Dakota language specialist trainings. The college has a dictionary and other materials available on their website, created through grants at their Kaksiza Caŋhdeṡka Center. These books and materials are hand crafted with the hard work and dedication of elder speakers of the Lake Traverse reservation community, with regular weekly meetings to create curriculum or work with learners; President Azure at

5940-531: The Sun Dance . Their religion holds that traditional religious ceremonies should be held within the Black Hills, though by necessity they are now held inside and outside of the Black Hills. Some outsiders use the latter fact to conclude that the land is not needed to perform the ceremonies. The land has significant resources and minerals, which was the primary driver for its seizure in the mid-1800s, and an important factor in why many people oppose its return to

6105-495: The Sun Dance . The seven divisions selected four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division. Being one of the four leaders was considered the highest honor for a leader; however, the annual gathering meant the majority of tribal administration was cared for by the usual leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850. The historical political organization

6270-407: The Sun Dance . These gatherings afforded leaders to meet to make political decisions, plan movements, arbitrate disputes, and organize and launch raiding expeditions or war parties. In the fall, people split into smaller bands to facilitate hunting to procure meat for the long winter. Between the fall hunt and the onset of winter was a time when Lakota warriors could undertake raiding and warfare. With

6435-424: The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) was formed to establish land rights and maintain peace between travelling miners and the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara nations. Under this treaty, the formation of reservations began where pieces of allotted land were distributed to the several tribes. The treaty recognized the Sioux territory of the Black Hills which were located between

6600-534: The Yankton Sioux Reservation . Pressured by the ongoing arrival of Europeans, Yankton chief Struck by the Ree told his people, "The white men are coming in like maggots. It is useless to resist them. They are many more than we are. We could not hope to stop them. Many of our brave warriors would be killed, our women and children left in sorrow, and still we would not stop them. We must accept it, get

6765-512: The endonym Wičhíyena , lived near the Minnesota River before ceding their land and moving to South Dakota in 1858. Despite ceding their lands, their treaty with the U.S. government allowed them to maintain their traditional role in the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ as the caretakers of the Pipestone Quarry , a cultural center for Sioux people. Considered the Western Dakota, they have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota . Nakota are

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6930-465: The supernatural realms. It is believed that Wakȟáŋ Tháŋka ("Great Spirit/Great Mystery") created the universe and embodies everything in the universe as one. The preeminent symbol of Sioux religion is the Čhaŋgléska Wakȟaŋ ("sacred hoop"), which visually represents the concept that everything in the universe is intertwined. The creation stories of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ describe how the various spirits were formed from Wakȟáŋ Tháŋka. Black Elk describes

7095-684: The 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants. The French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudson's Bay Company . The Ojibwe , Potawatomi and Ottawa bands were among the first to trade with the French as they migrated into the Great Lakes region. Upon their arrival, Dakota were in an economic alliance with them until

7260-767: The Black Hills fundraised to buy the land during the Reynolds' sale. On January 15, 2013, the U.S. responded, telling Anaya that it "understands several tribes purchased the Pe' Sla sacred site around November 30, 2012" meaning the Pe' Sla is officially Sioux land. On March 10, 2016, the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs informed the Great Sioux Nation (Oceti Sakowin) on March 10, 2016, of its decision to take Pe’ Sla,

7425-408: The Black Hills that were damaged by miners travelling to California. The treaty also developed boundaries for the Sioux and promoted peace between white settlers and plain Indians. Consequently, the treaty favoured United States expansionism when the Sioux agreed to the development of railroads and trails within their territory. In contrast, the treaty did prove beneficial to the Sioux nation, where

7590-574: The Black Hills to protest the United States Forest Service's removal of all Indians living on that territory by September 8 of that year; however, they did not succeed. The appeal brought by Pine Ridge Indian Reservation , in 1981 for 7,300,000 acres (11,400 sq mi) of South Dakota Black Hills land and $ 11 billion was denied by the United States Supreme Court and resulted in the involvement of

7755-475: The Black Hills to the United States. The Agreement of 1877, also known as the Act of February 28, 1877 (19  Stat.   254 ), is the most controversial treaty regarding the Black Hills land claims. The treaty officially took away Sioux land, and permanently established Indian reservations. Article 1 of the act modifies the boundaries of reservations stated in the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty, while Article 2 allows

7920-560: The Court of Claims and on November 21, 1979, the Supreme Court set a date to review the claim and on December 10, the appeal was granted. The Supreme Court case United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians was argued on March 24, 1980. On June 30, 1980, the United States Supreme Court ruled in an 8–1 majority to uphold the United States Court of Claims' initial ruling, awarding the Sioux nation $ 106 million, which resulted in

8085-573: The Crow over the next two years. In 1858, the failure of the United States to prevent the mass immigration of miners and settlers into Colorado during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush , also did not help matters. They took over Indian lands in order to mine them, "against the protests of the Indians," and founded towns, started farms, and improved roads. Such immigrants competed with the tribes for game and water, straining limited resources and resulting in conflicts with

8250-586: The Dakota Language Program collaborated to develop the Dakota Language House Living Learning Community in hopes of it becoming a full-immersion Dakota program. It is an opportunity for students to live with others who are speaking, or learning to speak, Dakota. Dakota language instructor Šišóka Dúta ( Sisithunwan-Wahpethunwan Dakhota ) noted, "To speak the language is to literally breathe life into

8415-484: The Dakota signed their first treaty with the American government. Zebulon Pike negotiated for 100,000 acres of land at the confluence of the St. Croix River about what now is Hastings, Minnesota and the confluence of the Minnesota River and Mississippi River about what now is St. Paul, Minnesota . The Americans wanted to establish military outposts and the Dakota wanted a new source of trading. An American military post

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8580-523: The Dakota version and sometimes revised the meaning of Dakota words to fit a Eurocentric viewpoint. Dakota Prisoner of War Letters is a great historic resource as it highlights fluently written Dakota language letters from the time of the Camp Kearney prison camp located in Davenport, IA, in 1863–1866. These letters are to relatives back home or to their closest representative they could find. It

8745-451: The Dakota were able to trade directly for European goods with the French. The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60. Later visiting French traders and missionaries included Claude-Jean Allouez , Daniel Greysolon Duluth , and Pierre-Charles Le Sueur who wintered with Dakota bands in early 1700. The Dakota began to resent

8910-549: The Dakota were put in a weakened position to defend the eastern border: new diseases (smallpox and malaria) and increased intertribal warfare (between the migration of tribes fleeing the Iroquois into their territory of present-day Wisconsin) put a strain on their ability to maintain their territory. As a result, their population in the Mississippi valley is believed to have declined by one-third between 1680 and 1805. Late in

9075-467: The Dakota's exile from Minnesota. They were forced onto reservations in Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota, and some fled to Canada. After 1870, the Dakota people began to return to Minnesota, creating the present-day reservations in the state. The Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota ( Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna ; "Village-at-the-end" and "Little village-at-the-end"), collectively also called by

9240-667: The Dalles of the St. Croix. According to William Whipple Warren , a Métis historian, the fighting began when the Meskwaki (Fox) engaged the Ojibwe (their hereditary enemies) around St. Croix Falls . The Sioux were the former enemies of the Meskwaki and were enlisted to make a joint attack against the Ojibwe. The Meskwaki were first to engage with the large Ojibwe war party led by Waubojeeg :

9405-462: The Great Spirit, and then we will be and act and live as He intends". Prayer is believed to invoke relationships with one's ancestors or spiritual world. The Lakota word for prayer , wočhékiye , means "to call on for aid," "to pray," and "to claim relationship with". Their primary cultural prophet is Ptesáŋwiŋ, White Buffalo Calf Woman , who came as an intermediary between Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka and humankind to teach them how to be good relatives by introducing

9570-417: The Indian Claims Commission was the only mechanism Congress has authorized for hearing land cases of this type, and it was now terminated. On October 6, Arthur Lazarus filed for attorney fees for himself and the two other lawyers, Howard Payne and Marvin J. Sonosky, who participated in the United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians but were never paid. On May 21, 1981, the United States Court of Claims granted

9735-431: The Indians of Powder River stated "We object to the Powder River road. The country which we live in is cut up by white men, who drive away all the game. That is the cause of our troubles." General Sherman responded by saying that the government would not close down the trail but would compensate the Indians for any damages travellers may have caused to the land. Red Cloud hesitated to sign the treaty, but eventually agreed to

9900-601: The Indians the full value of the land." The Court ordered "just compensation to the Sioux Nation, and that obligation, including an award of interest, must now, at last, be paid." However, the Sioux Nation refused the monetary award, stating that their goal was return of the land. The land of the Black Hills has a United States Federal Government presence where it is home to five national parks: Mount Rushmore National Memorial , Badlands National Park , Devils Tower National Monument , Jewel Cave National Monument and Wind Cave National Park . Black Elk Peak , formerly Harney Peak,

10065-513: The Lakota was noted as being located east of the Red River, and living on the fringes of the prairies and woods of the prairies of southern Minnesota and the eastern Dakotas by at least 1680. According to Baptiste Good's winter count , the Lakota had horses by 1700. While the Dakota continued a subsistence cycle of corn, wild rice and hunting woodland animals, the Lakota increasing became reliant on bison for meat and its by-products (housing, clothing, tools) as they expanded their territory westward with

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10230-403: The Lakota. Some believe that the Sioux did not willingly choose to inhabit the Black Hills, but were forced on to the land by military conquest of other tribes. If the Black Hills were not originally inhabited by the Sioux, they conclude, the Sioux have no rights to the land. However, the Fort Laramie Treaty between the United States and the Sioux Nation unambiguously recognized their ownership of

10395-412: The Mdewakanton band led a group that attacked the Lower Sioux Agency (or Redwood Agency) and trading post located there. Later, settlers found Myrick among the dead with his mouth stuffed full of grass. Many of the upper Dakota (Sisseton and Wahpeton) wanted no part in the attacks with the majority of the 4,000 members of the Sisseton and Wahpeton opposed to the war. Thus their bands did not participate in

10560-432: The Meskwaki allegedly boasted to the Dakota to hold back as they would quickly destroy their enemies. When the Dakota joined the battle, they had the upper hand until Sandy Lake Ojibwe reinforcements arrived. The Dakota were driven back and Warren states: "Many were driven over the rocks into the boiling floods below, there to find a watery grave. Others, in attempting to jump into their narrow wooden canoes, were capsized into

10725-474: The Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho by the 1820s as intertribal warfare on the plains increased amongst the tribes for access to the dwindling population of buffalo. The alliance fought the Mandan , Hidatsa and Arikara for control of the Missouri River in North Dakota. By the 1840s, their territory expanded to the Powder River country in Montana, in which they fought with the Crow. Their victories over these tribes during this time period were aided by

10890-402: The Oglála-Sičháŋǧu who occupied the James River valley. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River , followed 10 years later by the Oglála and Brulé (Sičháŋǧu). By 1750, they had crossed the Missouri River and encountered Lewis and Clark in 1804. Initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by

11055-476: The Ojibwe trading with the hereditary enemies of the Sioux, the Cree and Assiniboine . Tensions rose in the 1720s into a prolonged war in 1736. The Dakota lost their traditional lands around Leech Lake and Mille Lacs as they were forced south along the Mississippi River and St. Croix River Valley as a result of the battles. These intertribal conflicts also made it dangerous for European fur traders: whichever side they traded with, they were viewed as enemies from

11220-436: The Očhéthi Šakówiŋ strongly relied on kinship ties that extend beyond human interaction and includes the natural and supernatural worlds.  Mitákuye Oyás’iŋ ("all are related") represents a spiritual belief of how human beings should ideally act and relate to other humans, the natural world, the spiritual world, and to the cosmos. The thiyóšpaye represents the political and economic structure of traditional society. Prior to

11385-562: The Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, or "Seven Council Fires". The term "Sioux", an exonym from a French transcription (" Nadouessioux ") of the Ojibwe term Nadowessi , can refer to any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nation's many language dialects. Before the 17th century, the Santee Dakota ( Isáŋyathi : "Knife", also known as the Eastern Dakota) lived around Lake Superior with territories in present-day northern Minnesota and Wisconsin. They gathered wild rice , hunted woodland animals, and used canoes to fish. Wars with

11550-481: The Racetrack or Red Valley, Buffalo Gap, Craven Canyon, Gillette Prairie, the Hot Springs-Minnekahta area, lnyan Kara Mountain, Black Elk Peak, Black Buttes, White Butte, and Rapid Creek Valley. Most of these places are part of the traditional histories of the tribes, some related to extensive migrations in pre contact times. For the Lakota, the Black Hills were frequently used for the individual vision quests , and through them some people even learned ritual and songs of

11715-408: The Republican Fork of the Smoky Hill River." Article 12, which remains standing today, declared that future land cessions would require the signatures of at least three-fourths of native American occupants. Shortly after the signing of the treaty, two tribes residing near Republican Fork killed several white settlers, who were illegally encroaching on Sioux land. This resulted in another violation of

11880-605: The Rights of Indigenous Peoples , endorsed by the administration of President Barack Obama in 2010. Anaya met with tribes in seven states on reservations and in urban areas, as well as with members of the Obama administration and the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs . Anaya tentatively recommended the return of lands to some tribes, including the Black Hills to the Sioux. His full official report with recommendations

12045-481: The Seven Sacred Rites and the čhaŋnúŋpa ( sacred pipe ). The seven ceremonies are Inípi (purification lodge), Haŋbléčheyapi ( crying for vision ), Wiwáŋyaŋg Wačhípi ( Sun Dance ), Huŋkalowaŋpi (making of relatives), Išnáthi Awíčhalowaŋpi (female puberty ceremony), Tȟápa Waŋkáyeyapi (throwing of the ball) and Wanáǧi Yuhápi (soul keeping). Each part of the čhaŋnúŋpa (stem, bowl, tobacco, breath, and smoke)

12210-501: The Sioux all Federal land in the area, roughly two million acres." Under the bill, the Black Hills Steering Committee promised to keep all federal employees that worked on the Black Hills. In 1987, Senator Bill Bradley introduced a bill that would have returned some of the land. It died in committee. In 1990, following input from Sioux elders, Matthew G. Martínez proposed a bill that would have returned

12375-470: The Sioux all further appropriation and treaty-guaranteed annuities" until they gave up the Black Hills. A Supreme Court case was ruled in favor of the Sioux in 1980. As of 2011, the court's award was worth over $ 1 billion, but the Sioux have outstanding issues with the ruling and have not collected the funds. The Sioux tribes eventually managed to purchase a portion, 1,900 acres (3.0 sq mi) out of

12540-585: The Sioux arrived in the northwoods of central Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin from the Central Mississippi River shortly before 800 AD. Archaeologists refer to them as the Woodland Blackduck-Kathio-Clam River Continuum. Around 1300 AD, they adopted the characteristics of a northern tribal society and became known as the Seven Council Fires. The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at

12705-482: The Sioux did not face intruders until Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer and his army entered the Black Hills in 1874 and publicly announced their discovery of gold. By 1875 the announcement led to the establishment of large mining towns, such as Deadwood , Central City and Lead within the Black Hills. Accordingly, the United States unilaterally imposed the Manypenny Agreement , claimed

12870-465: The Sioux meaning "little snakes" or enemy (compare nadowe "big snakes", used for the Iroquois ). The French pluralized the Ojibwe singular " Nadowessi " by adding the French plural suffix " oux " to form " Nadowessioux ", which was later shortened to " Sioux ". The Proto-Algonquian form *na·towe·wa , meaning "Northern Iroquoian", has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to

13035-524: The Sioux permission to hand over intruders to the United States government for further punishment. The sacredness of the Black Hills kept intruders out until Jedediah Smith 's expedition of 15 traders into the Black Hills in 1823. In 1849 the Californian Gold Rush attracted many prospectors, who sometimes encroached on sacred Sioux grounds while headed for the Oregon trail . As a result,

13200-582: The Sioux used in the past. In recent times, some of the tribes have formally or informally reclaimed traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as the Sičháŋǧu Oyáte, and the Oglala often use the name Oglála Lakȟóta Oyáte, rather than the formal Oglala Sioux Tribe or OST. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered incorrect. The traditional social structure of

13365-670: The Sisseton Wahpeton College in South Dakota. The Fort Peck Culture Department create the Yanktonai Dakota Vocab Builder in the same year. In 2018, the Lower Sioux Indian Community launched their Dakota immersion Head Start and also maintains online language classes to support the learning of their children and their families. The Dakota Wicohan program on Lower Sioux works with older youth to immerse them in

13530-568: The Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribe of Oklahoma, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota successfully purchased land near the sacred Bear Butte for $ 1.1 million at an auction. On March 24, 2017, Pennington County agreed to end its dispute over Pe' Sla's Federal Indian status. On November 7, 2018, 1,020 acres (1.59 sq mi) of land near Bear Butte were sold to

13695-516: The U.S. cease recognizing tribes as sovereign nations, refrain from making treaties with them, employ military force against those who refused to relocate to reservations, and move the Bureau of Indian Affairs from the Department of the Interior to the Department of War . The system of treaties eventually deteriorated to the point of collapse, and a decade of war followed the commission's work. It

13860-485: The United Nations which was investigating if this denial breached international law. After several denials of appeals brought by tribal lawyer Mario Gonzalez, the Black Hills Steering Committee was formed. The committee drafted a bill for Congress that asked for the 7,300,000 acres (11,400 sq mi) of the Black Hills in South Dakota. At the time, the committee's coordinator stated that "the bill would give

14025-668: The United States and reserves in Manitoba and Saskatchewan in Canada. The Sioux people refer to their whole nation of people (sometimes called the Great Sioux Nation) as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (meaning "Seven Council Fires"). Each fire symbolises an oyate (people or nation). Today the seven nations that comprise the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ are: They are also referred to as the Lakota or Dakota based on dialect differences. In any of

14190-431: The United States government to establish roads for settlers to travel upon when crossing the territory. Also, Article 7 states that only full blood Indians residing on the reservation are allowed to the agreements and benefits from this act as well as past treaties. The controversies around this act state that the government purchased the land from the reservation but there is no valid record of this transaction. This act

14355-400: The United States, and the Sioux Nation was eventually forcibly removed. The Supreme Court ruled in 1980 ( US v Sioux Nation ) that the Sioux Nation never received just compensation for their land, writing "a more ripe and rank case of dishonorable dealings will never, in all probability, be found in our history." The Court concluded that Congress had failed to "makes a good faith effort to give

14520-503: The area in about 1765 after being pushed out of Wisconsin and Minnesota by European settlers and Chippewa tribes. The tribe quickly adapted to plains-life, with the bison at the center of their culture. The Great Sioux Reservation , including the Black Hills , was "set apart for the absolute and undisturbed use and occupation of the Indians" in the Fort Laramie Treaty of April 29, 1868 . Those treaties were not upheld by

14685-432: The arrival of Europeans, the different Očhéthi Šakówiŋ villages (oyáte, "tribe/nation") consisted of many thiyóšpaye ("camp circles"), which were large extended families united by kinship (thiwáhe, "immediate family"). Thiyóšpaye varied in size, were led by a leader appointed by an elder council and were nicknamed after a prominent member or memorable event associated with the band. Dakota ethnographer Ella Cara Deloria noted

14850-418: The arrival of the horse. After their adoption of horse culture , Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. By the 19th century, the typical year of the Lakota was a communal buffalo hunt as early in spring as their horses had recovered from the rigors of the winter. In June and July, the scattered bands of the tribes gathered together into large encampments, which included ceremonies such as

15015-498: The beginning of a word, infixes inside of the word, and suffixes are added to the end of a word. For example, the verb wóyakA means "to tell a story" in Dakota. By adding the infixed " -ki- ", the word becomes wókiyakA , which means "to tell someone". On the other hand, by adding the suffix " -pi ," the word becomes " wóyakapi ", which can mean "a story, a narrative" or "they are all telling stories". Dakota being an agglutinative language means that affixes are added to

15180-573: The best terms we can get and try to adopt their ways." Despite ceding their lands, the treaty allowed the Western Dakota to maintain their traditional role in the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ as the caretakers of the Pipestone Quarry , which is the cultural center of the Sioux people. With the creation of Minnesota Territory by the U.S. in 1849, the Eastern Dakota (Sisseton, Wahpeton, Mdewakanton, and Wahpekute) people were pressured to cede more of their land. The reservation period for them began in 1851 with

15345-540: The case in 1956 until they won in 1980. Despite this legal victory, the Sioux refused to accept payment for the land and the dispute over the Black Hills continues to this day. The United States Court of Claims on June 13, 1979, in a 5–2 majority, decided that the 1877 Act that seized the Black Hills from the Sioux was a violation of the Fifth Amendment. On July 31, 1979, the Sioux were awarded $ 17.5 million with 5 percent interest totaling $ 105 million. However,

15510-458: The causative suffix -yA .) Meanwhile, artificial possessive pronouns are used to signify property and possessions that can be transferred or traded. For example, the artificial pronoun tha- , which may become thi- , and tho- , is equivalent to the verb tháwa , "his or hers," can be prefixed onto nouns such as "bow," in thinázipe , and "friend," in thakhódaku . Dakota is mainly a subject-object-verb (SOV) language, where nouns, whether they are

15675-680: The coming of winter snows, the Lakota settled into winter camps, where activities of the season, ceremonies and dances as well as trying to ensure adequate winter feed for their horses. They began to dominate the prairies east of the Missouri river by the 1720s. At the same time, the Lakota branch split into two major sects, the Saône who moved to the Lake Traverse area on the South Dakota–North Dakota–Minnesota border, and

15840-401: The contemporary funeral practices, it is common to see prayers conducted by a medicine man along with traditional songs often sung with a drum. One member of the family is also required to be present next to the body at all times until the burial. Gifts are placed within the casket to aid with the journey into the afterworld, which is still believed to take up to four days after death. There are

16005-550: The court ruled that the US government had illegally taken tribal lands covered by the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 and that the tribe was owed compensation plus interest. As of 2018, this amounted to more than $ 1 billion; the Sioux have refused the payment, demanding instead the return of the Black Hills . Today, the Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments across several reservations and communities in North Dakota , South Dakota , Nebraska , Minnesota , and Montana in

16170-518: The death sentences of 284 of the warriors, while signing off on the hanging of 38 Santee men on December 26, 1862, in Mankato, Minnesota . It was the largest mass-execution in U.S. history, on U.S. soil. The men remanded by order of President Lincoln were sent to a prison in Iowa , where more than half died. Afterwards, the U.S. Congress annulled all treaty agreements with the eastern Dakota and expelled

16335-524: The dialects, Lakota or Dakota translates to mean "friend" or "ally" referring to the alliances between the bands. The name "Sioux" was adopted in English by the 1760s from French . It is abbreviated from the French Nadouessioux , first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640. The name is sometimes said to be derived from " Nadowessi " (plural " Nadowessiwag "), an Ojibwe exonym for

16500-608: The dialects. The University of Minnesota was the first American University to establish a Dakota language class in their American Indian studies department. In 1966 a small group petitioned the University's administration to "establish links between the University and Minnesota's eleven federally-recognized tribes to develop recruitment and retention efforts for American Indian students, and to create courses on issues of importance to American Indian communities". In 2022, University of Minnesota's American Indian Studies Department and

16665-599: The dialects: The two dialects also differ in the diminutive suffix ( -daŋ, -da in Santee, and -na in Yankton-Yanktonai and in Sisseton) and in a number of other phonetic issues that are harder to categorize. The following table gives examples of words that differ in their phonology. There are also numerous lexical differences between the two Dakota dialects as well as between the sub-dialects. Yankton-Yanktonai

16830-553: The early killings. Historian Mary Wingerd has stated that it is "a complete myth that all the Dakota people went to war against the United States" and that it was rather "a faction that went on the offensive". Most of Little Crow's men surrendered shortly after the Battle of Wood Lake at Camp Release on September 26, 1862. Little Crow was forced to retreat sometime in September 1862. He stayed briefly in Canada but soon returned to

16995-801: The east bank of the Missouri River . There were as few as 50 eastern Dakota left in Minnesota by 1867. Many had fled to the Santee Sioux Reservation in Nebraska (created 1863), the Flandreau Reservation (created 1869 from members who left the Santee Reservation), the Lake Traverse and Spirit Lake Reservations (both created 1867). Those who fled to Canada throughout the 1870s now have descendants residing on nine small Dakota Reserves, five of which are located in Manitoba ( Sioux Valley , Dakota Plain , Dakota Tipi , Birdtail Creek , and Canupawakpa Dakota ) and

17160-561: The eastern Dakota with the Forfeiture Act of February 16, 1863, meaning all lands held by the eastern Dakota, and all annuities due to them, were forfeited to the U.S. government. During and after the hostilities, the majority of eastern Dakota fled Minnesota for the Dakota territory or Canada . Some settled in the James River Valley in a short-lived reservation before being forced to move to Crow Creek Reservation on

17325-485: The emigrants. The U.S. government did not enforce the treaty to keep out the immigrants. The situation escalated with the Grattan affair in 1854 when a detachment of U.S. soldiers illegally entered a Sioux encampment to arrest those accused of stealing a cow, and in the process sparked a battle in which Chief Conquering Bear was killed. Though intertribal fighting had existed before the arrival of white settlers, some of

17490-482: The entire area designated by the treaty; this also died in committee. In April 2009, several tribe members filed a suit saying they wanted to receive money and not the land as compensation. They claimed that 5,000 tribal members signed on with the lawsuit but didn't want to be named. The lawsuit was dismissed in 2011. On June 30, 2009, the Rosebud Sioux and Oglala Sioux tribes called for a meeting to discuss

17655-524: The fact those tribes were decimated by European diseases. Most of the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara were killed by smallpox and almost half the population of the Crow were killed due to smallpox, cholera and other diseases. In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coat's village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many and burning half of the earth lodges, and 30 years later, the Lakota again inflicted

17820-437: The federal government should force Sioux tribes to take settlement money for the Black Hills. He believes that tribes are best suited to decide how to handle the monetary award themselves." The Sioux reported re-emerging with new faith and a readiness to start working with President Barack Obama where they have publicly announced their eagerness for "government to government negotiations to explore innovative solutions to resolve

17985-442: The first, the second, and the third. Person is indicated through the addition (first and second person) or subtraction (third person, the verb is used in its simplest form) of personal pronoun affixes. There are two forms of tense in the language, the aorist (as verbs, adjectives, and other nouns, sometimes called the indefinite) and the future . In order to express the future tense, the suffixes kta or kte are placed after

18150-482: The government agreed to pay the tribe $ 50,000 each year for 50 years and recognized land rights of the Sioux and their right to self-governance within their boundaries. However, the United States violated the treaty a year later on May 24, 1852, when the United States Senate decreased the payment of $ 50,000 for fifty years to ten years. On December 21, 1866, a supply train, travelling on Bozeman Trail

18315-825: The government declared these were intended to be temporary, in an effort to force the Sioux out of Minnesota. The Upper Sioux Agency for the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands was established near Granite Falls, Minnesota , while the Lower Sioux Agency for the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute bands was established about thirty miles downstream near what developed as Redwood Falls, Minnesota . The Upper Sioux were not satisfied with their reservation because of low food supplies, but as it included several of their old villages, they agreed to stay. The Lower Sioux were displaced from their traditional woodlands and were dissatisfied with their new territory of mostly prairie. The U.S. intended

18480-469: The government to provide the tribe with just compensation for violating the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty. In September 1979, Sonosky and Lazarus offered the tribe $ 44 million as a settlement for the violation in 1868, but were met with hostility. On October 17, 1979, Solicitor General Wade McCree of the Justice Department sent an appeal to the United States Supreme Court over the initial ruling by

18645-440: The horse and fur trade. Meanwhile, the Dakota retained many of their Woodlands features. By 1803, the three divisions of the Sioux (Western/Eastern Dakota and Lakota) were established in their different environments and had developed their own distinctive lifeways. However, due to the prevalent cultural concept of thiyóšpaye (community), the three divisions maintained strong ties throughout the changing times to present day. In 1805,

18810-443: The house. However, even with these roles, both men and women held power in decision-making tasks and sexual preferences were flexible and allowed. The term wíŋtke refers to men who partook in traditional feminine duties while the term witkówiŋ ("crazy woman") was used for women who rejected their roles as either mother or wife to be a prostitute. Traditional Funeral Practices It is a common belief amongst Siouan communities that

18975-472: The kinship through the religious Huŋkalowaŋpi ceremony. Early European explorers and missionaries who lived among the Dakota were sometimes adopted into the thiyóšpaye (known as "huŋka relatives"), such as Louis Hennepin who noted, "this help'd me to gain credit among these people". During the later reservation era , districts were often settled by clusters of families from the same thiyóšpaye. The traditional social system extended beyond human interaction into

19140-468: The kinship ties were all-important, they dictated and demanded all phrases of traditional life: "I can safely say that the ultimate aim of Dakota life, stripped of accessories, was quite simple: one must obey kinship rules; one must be a good relative. No Dakota who participated in that life will dispute that… every other consideration was secondary—property, personal ambition, glory, good times, life itself. Without that aim and constant struggle to attain it,

19305-607: The land, and officially removed the Black Hills from the Sioux Reservation by passing the Congressional Act of February 28, 1877. (19 Stat., 254) Congress passed an appropriations bill in February 1851 to allow Commissioner of Indian Affairs Luke Lea to negotiate with the Native Americans living on the Black Hills. The Fort Laramie Treaty was developed to prevent further harm of the natural resources in

19470-445: The land. The Arikara arrived by AD 1500, followed by the Cheyenne , Crow , Kiowa and Arapaho . The Lakota (also known as Sioux ) arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west. They claimed the land, which they called Ȟe Sápa (Black Mountains). The mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills. The Lakota did not come across a United States governmental spokesperson until

19635-491: The language and culture. Dakota Wicohan offers curriculum on Dakota values, language and customs through their website. In North Dakota, there are state and tribal colleges teaching Dakota. The University of North Dakota has an Indigenous Language Education program up through a Bachelor of Science degree. Sitting Bull College , which serves the Standing Rock Indian Reservation maintains

19800-428: The language because you're using the air to speak language, and so, in a metaphorical but in the literal way. So by speaking the language, we're breathing life into it and that's actually a phrase in our language". The University's classes currently include classes on teaching Dakota, alongside Dakota Linguistics, for years one through four. In 2023, the University introduced a Dakota language major program. In 1979,

19965-554: The largest sum ever given to an Indian tribe for illegally seized territory. However, a complaint was filed to the United States District Court on July 1, 1980, by a member of the Sioux tribe asking the United States Supreme Court to prevent Arthur Lazarus from accepting any compensation that was awarded on behalf of the tribe. The tribe stated that they did not sign a legal contract with Lazarus, and that he did not represent their view. On July 9, 1980, in

20130-469: The long-standing dispute over the sacred Black Hills in a fair and honourable manner." There is no current government activity on the Black Hills. However, on November 5, 2009, President Obama stated to the Native American population that "You deserve to have a voice," and "You will not be forgotten as long as I'm in this White House." This statement occurred after President Obama's signature on

20295-446: The martyred Lakota leader, Crazy Horse . The sculpture is designed to symbolize the culture, tradition and living heritage of North American Indians although its construction has been controversial within the tribe. The Lakotas , Cheyennes , Arapahos , Kiowas and Kiowa-Apaches believe the land to be sacred. Specific locations in and near the Black Hills considered as sacred include Bear Lodge Butte (Devils Tower), Bear Butte,

20460-511: The much lower than expected payments from the federal government caused economic suffering and increased social tensions within the tribes. By 1862, many Dakota were starving and tensions erupted in the Dakota War of 1862 . By 1862, shortly after a failed crop the year before and a winter starvation, the federal payment was late. The local traders refused to issue any credit to the Dakota. One trader, Andrew Myrick , went so far as to say, "If they're hungry, let them eat grass." On August 16, 1862,

20625-474: The newly obtained Louisiana Territory by distributing medals to symbolize peace and American citizenship. The Lewis and Clark expedition led to the formation of the Missouri and American fur companies in 1808. As a result, the United States regulated trade outside of the Black Hills. To maintain peace, the United States government offered the Sioux full protection from harm and of property as well as gave

20790-418: The nouns, both subject and object, are always placed at the beginning of the clause. Dakota has two major dialects with two sub-dialects each: The two dialects differ phonologically, grammatically, and to a large extent, also lexically. They are mutually intelligible to a high extent, although Western Dakota appears lexically closer to the Lakota language with which it has high mutual intelligibility. For

20955-443: The other hand, are formed by the addition of affixes to words in other grammatical categories. Verbs in Dakota can appropriate, through agglutination and synthesis, many of the pronominal , prepositional , and adverbial or modal affixes of the language. There are many verbal roots, all of which are only used once certain causative prefixes are added, forming participles . Like in English, Dakota verbs also have three persons ,

21120-545: The other. For example, in 1736 a group of Sioux killed Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye and twenty other men on an island in Lake of the Woods for such reasons. However, trade with the French continued until the French gave up North America in 1763. Europeans repeatedly tried to make truce between the warring tribes in order to protect their interests. One of the larger battles between the Dakota and Ojibwe took place in 1770 fought at

21285-404: The people would no longer be Dakotas in truth. They would no longer even be human. To be a good Dakota, then, was to be humanized, civilized. And to be civilized was to keep the rules imposed by kinship for achieving civility, good manners, and a sense of responsibility toward every individual dealt with". During the fur trade era , the thiyóšpaye refused to trade only for economic reasons. Instead

21450-458: The post-treaty intertribal fighting can be attributed to mass killings of bison by white settlers and government agents. The U.S. Army did not enforce treaty regulations and allowed hunters onto Native land to slaughter buffalo, providing protection and sometimes ammunition. One hundred thousand buffalo were killed each year until they were on the verge of extinction, which threatened the tribes' subsistence. These mass killings affected all tribes thus

21615-422: The prefix a- meaning "upon" AkáȟpA + -kiči + -čhiyA = Akáȟpekičičhiye . Overall, affixes in the Dakota language play an important role in creating new words and adding nuances to the meaning of existing words. They allow speakers to express complex ideas in a concise and efficient manner. Infixoids are morphemes that can occur either as infixes , circumfixes , or transfixes depending on

21780-410: The production and trade of goods was regulated by rules of kinship bonds. Personal relationships were pivotal for success: in order for European-Americans to trade with the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, social bonds had to be created. The most successful fur traders married into the kinship society, which also raised the status of the family of the woman through access to European goods. Outsiders are also adopted into

21945-635: The rapids". While Dakota and Ojibwe suffered heavy losses, the Meskwaki were left with the most dead and forced to join their relatives, the Sauk people . The victory for the Ojibwe secured control of the Upper St. Croix and created an informal boundary between the Dakota and Ojibwe around the mouth of the Snake River. As the Lakota entered the prairies, they adopted many of the customs of the neighboring Plains tribes , creating new cultural patterns based on

22110-523: The relationships with Wakȟáŋ Tháŋka as: "We should understand well that all things are the works of the Great Spirit. We should know that He is within all things: the trees, the grasses, the rivers, the mountains, and all the four-legged animals, and the winged peoples; and even more important, we should understand that He is also above all these things and peoples. When we do understand all this deeply in our hearts, then we will fear, and love, and know

22275-653: The remaining four ( Standing Buffalo , White Cap , Round Plain [wahpeton] , and Wood Mountain) in Saskatchewan . A few Dakota joined the Yanktonai and moved further west to join with the Lakota bands to continue their struggle against the United States military, later settling on the Fort Peck Reservation in Montana. Prior to the 1650s, the Thítȟuŋwaŋ division of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ known as

22440-453: The root word without changing the form of the root word. This can result in long, complex words that can convey a lot of information in a single word. For example, the Dakota word akáȟpekičičhiyA , means "to cover up something for one; to pass by a matter, forgive, or cancel". This word is made up of the root word kaȟpÁ (meaning "to cover, knock down or take something down"), the suffix - kičičhiyA meaning "to or for, (causative)", and

22605-451: The signing of the Treaty of Mendota and the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux . The Treaty of Mendota was signed near Pilot Knob on the south bank of the Minnesota River and within sight of Fort Snelling . The treaty stipulated that the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute bands were to receive US$ 1,410,000 in return for relocating to the Lower Sioux Agency on the Minnesota River near present-day Morton, Minnesota along with giving up their rights to

22770-540: The source of the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes during the seventeenth century. They were dispersed west in 1659 due to warfare with the Iroquois . During the 1600s, the Lakota began their expansion westward into the Plains, taking with them the bulk of people of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ. By 1700 the Dakota were living in Wisconsin and Minnesota . As the Sioux nation began expanding with access to horses,

22935-526: The specific context and meaning of the word being used. Locatives Abstract and indefinite object markers A duplifix is a morpheme that is a morphological process in which the root or part of a word (or even the whole word) is repeated exactly or with a slight change. Unlike other types of affixes, duplifixes can emphasize or intensify the meaning of the word rather than change its grammatical function, or can be used to indicate plurality or repetition, or to modify adjectives or verbs for emphasis. This

23100-418: The spirit of the deceased travels to an afterlife . In traditional beliefs, this spiritual journey was believed to start once funeral proceedings were complete and spanned over a course of four days. Mourning family and friends took part in that four-day wake in order to accompany the spirit to its resting place. In the past, bodies were not embalmed and put up on a burial tree or scaffold for one year before

23265-443: The split issues regarding just compensation for the Black Hills. Meetings continued through 2011. In August 2009, the Obama administration talked about settling the Black Hills land claim dispute. In a press statement, President Barack Obama gave hope of government negotiations and Native American self-determination. A tribal analysis stated that President Obama "is a strong believer in tribal sovereignty. He does not believe court or

23430-419: The subject or object, always come before the verb. And when two nouns are used in the same clause, where one is the subject and the other is the object, the subject is most usually placed first. Verbs are also usually placed after adjectives that are used to qualify either the subject or the object and adverbs that qualify the verb. When additional words are used within a clause that are not either nouns or verbs,

23595-519: The terms on November 6, 1868. In relation to the Black Hills land claim, Article 2 established the Great Sioux Reservation and placed restrictions on hunting lands. Article 11 of the treaty states that "parties to this agreement hereby stipulate that they will relinquish all right to occupy permanently the territory outside their reservation as herein defined, but yet reserve the right to hunt on any lands north of North Platte and on

23760-463: The three lawyers with 10 percent of the $ 106 million awarded, which totaled $ 10.6 million. However, many Sioux Indians disagreed with the awarded fees and believed that the lawyers deserved nothing because the tribes did not want money as a form of compensation. The issue of land over money as compensation continued through 1981. In April, 40 Indians constructed a camp in Yellow Camp, located in

23925-677: The time said, "Many of our graduates are now out in the community and k-12 schools teaching what they learned and how they learned it, and are continuing to succeed in language revitalization". They also have an online Dakota/English dictionary. The University of Minnesota and the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate College are working together to create the Dakota Language Audio Journal, which will be the first publicly available language journal, featuring recordings of conversations and stories. In 2017,

24090-545: The total 6,000 square miles of disputed land in western South Dakota and northeastern Wyoming , in November 2012 which included the sacred Pe' Sla site. The Pe Sla' site's federal Indian trust status, which was granted by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 2016, was acknowledged by Pennington County in 2017. In 2016 and 2018, some Cheyenne and Sioux tribes managed to purchase land near the sacred Bear Butte , which serves as

24255-484: The treaties to encourage the Sioux to convert from their nomadic hunting lifestyle into more European-American settled farming, offering them compensation in the transition. By 1858, the Dakota only had a small strip of land along the Minnesota River, with no access to their traditional hunting grounds. They had to rely on treaty payments for their survival, which were often late. The forced change in lifestyle and

24420-462: The treaty payments to the eastern Dakota arrived in St. Paul, Minnesota , and were brought to Fort Ridgely the next day. However, they arrived too late to prevent the war. On August 17, 1862, the Dakota War began when a few Santee men murdered a white farmer and most of his family. They inspired further attacks on white settlements along the Minnesota River . On August 18, 1862, Little Crow of

24585-702: The treaty where the United States removed Sioux land rights to the Republican Fork. After the defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve" rider (19  Stat.   192 ) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (19  Stat.   176 , enacted August 15, 1876) which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded

24750-575: The tribes were forced onto each other's hunting grounds, where fighting broke out. On July 20, 1867, an act of Congress created the Indian Peace Commission "to establish peace with certain hostile Indian tribes". The Indian Peace Commission was generally seen as a failure, and violence had reignited even before it was disbanded in October 1868. Two official reports were submitted to the federal government, ultimately recommending that

24915-495: The trophies until 1971 when it returned the remains to Little Crow's grandson. For killing Little Crow the state increased the bounty to $ 500 when it paid Lamson. On November 5, 1862, a military tribunal found 303 mostly Mdewakanton tribesmen guilty of rape , murder and atrocities of hundreds of Minnesota settlers. They were sentenced to be hanged. The men had no attorneys or defense witnesses, and many were convicted in less than five minutes. President Abraham Lincoln commuted

25080-459: The verb eyÁ "to say something" uses the same affix in an infixed position, so if you want to say "she says to you", you would add the same affix ki- as an infix instead, with ni- 2sT resulting in " eníčiye " ( ni- + ki- + eyÁ ). Similarly, the affix -uŋ- which can mean "you and I" (1d), and is shared with -uŋ-...-pi "we all, us all" (1p), can be found in both positions of prefix and infix, depending on

25245-406: The verb in use. The verb iyáyA "to leave or pass by" in 1s ibdábde (I leave), while in 1d uŋkíyaye (you and I leave). The same affix in the verb máni "to walk" is infixed as 1d maúŋni . This phenomenon of affixes functioning as both prefixes and infixes in Dakota language is an example of the complex morphological structure of the language, and it requires careful attention to

25410-407: The verb, much in contrast to expressing the aorist tense, which requires no marking, but is instead derived from the context of what is being said. Source: Abstract benefactive ; (wa- + -kíči-) An action that is for someone else's benefit and is further generalized as a concept. Abstract causative ; (wa- + -yA) An action that causes something to change state or action and is generalized as

25575-425: The victory was short lived. The Sioux declined to accept the money, because acceptance would legally terminate Sioux demands for return of the Black Hills. The money remains in a Bureau of Indian Affairs account accruing compound interest. As of 2011, the Sioux's award plus interest was "about $ 1 billion" or "1.3 billion" (equivalent to $ 1.14-$ 1.48 billion in 2019). Furthermore, the two lawyers continued to work with

25740-494: The western Minnesota. He was killed on July 3, 1863, near Hutchinson, Minnesota while gathering raspberries with his teenage son. The pair had wandered onto the land of a settler Nathan Lamson, who shot at them to collect bounties. Once it was discovered that the body was of Little Crow, his skull and scalp were put on display by the Minnesota Historical Society in St. Paul, Minnesota. The State held

25905-431: The word they are attached to. In the case of Dakota language, some affixes can function as both a prefix and an infix, depending on the specific instance of the word. For example, the Dakota verb " dá " means "to ask for something". If you want to say "I ask for something from you", you add the affixes ki- to indicate dative 1 case (to someone), and čhi- 1s-2s (I to you) resulting in " čhičída ". However,

26070-519: Was also in violation of Article 12 of the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty and consequently became a central point of contestation for land rights over the Black Hills. The legal struggle for the Black Hills land claim began in the early 1920s under tribal lawyer Richard Case where he argued that the 1877 Act of February was illegal and that the United States never made a legitimate purchase of the land. Tribal Lawyers Marvin Sonosky and Arthur Lazarus took over

26235-516: Was an agreement between nine more or less independent parties. The treaty set forth traditional territorial claims of the tribes as among themselves. The United States acknowledged that all the land covered by the treaty was Indian territory and did not claim any part of it. The boundaries agreed to in the Fort Laramie treaty of 1851 were used to settle a number of claims cases in the 20th century. The tribes guaranteed safe passage for settlers on

26400-484: Was attacked by Sioux Indians. Soldiers under the command of Captain William Fetterman at Fort Kearny retaliated but were all killed by a small Sioux army led by Red Cloud . United States Congress responded on July 20, 1867, by creating the Indian Peace Commission . The peace expedition was led by Lieutenant General William Tecumseh Sherman . While negotiating, Sioux Indian Spotted Tail , representing

26565-500: Was based on individual participation and the cooperation of many to sustain the tribe's way of life. Leaders were chosen based upon noble birth and demonstrations of chiefly virtues, such as bravery, fortitude, generosity, and wisdom. Within the Sioux tribes, there were defined gender roles. The men in the village were tasked as the hunters, traveling outside the village. The women within the village were in charge of making clothing and similar articles while also taking care of, and owning,

26730-425: Was not established at the confluence of the St. Croix with the Mississippi, but Fort Snelling was established in 1819 along the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers. In return, Dakota were promised the ability to "pass and repass, hunt, or make other uses of the said districts as they have formerly done". In an attempt to stop intertribal warfare and to better able to negotiate with tribes, the American government signed

26895-524: Was released in mid-2012. Anaya also brought a sale of over 1,900 acres (3.0 sq mi) of land in Black Hills by the Reynolds family to the attention of the U.S. government and asked that it disclose measures taken by federal or state governments to address Sioux concerns over the sale of the land within Reynolds Prairie. These acres consist of five land tracts, including the sacred Pe' Sla site for Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota peoples; natives to

27060-546: Was that $ 1 billion would go to aid the poor standard of living from the seizure of the land while the other $ 10 billion would be used to remove "nonrenewable resources from the Hills." A New York Times article "Around the Nation: Appeal Court Rejects Suit, By Indians Over Black Hills" on June 3, 1981, stated that a United States Federal appeals court denied the terms of the lawsuit and ruled that

27225-689: Was the last major commission of its kind. Dakota language Dakota, similar to many Native American languages, is a mainly polysynthetic language , meaning that different morphemes in the form of affixes can be combined to form a single word. Nouns in Dakota can be broken down into two classes, primitive and derivative. Primitive nouns are nouns whose origin cannot be deduced from any other word (for example makhá or earth, phéta or fire, and até or father), while derivative nouns are nouns that are formed in various ways from words of other grammatical categories. Primitive nouns stand on their own and are separate from other words. Derivative nouns, on

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