Six Thinking Hats was written by Dr. Edward de Bono . "Six Thinking Hats" and the associated idea parallel thinking provide a means for groups to plan thinking processes in a detailed and cohesive way, and in doing so to think together more effectively.
131-534: The premise of the method is that the human brain thinks in a number of distinct ways which can be deliberately challenged, and hence planned for use in a structured way allowing one to develop tactics for thinking about particular issues. De Bono identifies six distinct directions in which the brain can be challenged. In each of these directions the brain will identify and bring into conscious thought certain aspects of issues being considered (e.g. gut instinct, pessimistic judgement, neutral facts). Some may feel that using
262-408: A central lobe , a limbic lobe , and an insular lobe . The central lobe comprises the precentral gyrus and the postcentral gyrus and is included since it forms a distinct functional role. The brainstem , resembling a stalk, attaches to and leaves the cerebrum at the start of the midbrain area. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons , and the medulla oblongata . Behind the brainstem
393-455: A cephalic flexure . This flexed part becomes the forebrain (prosencephalon); the adjoining curving part becomes the midbrain (mesencephalon) and the part caudal to the flexure becomes the hindbrain (rhombencephalon). These areas are formed as swellings known as the three primary brain vesicles . In the fifth week of development five secondary brain vesicles have formed. The forebrain separates into two vesicles – an anterior telencephalon and
524-480: A performance-measurement data and management system that allows city officials to maintain statistics on several areas from crime trends to the conditions of potholes . This system aided in better evaluation of policies and procedures with accountability and efficiency in terms of time and money. In its first year, CitiStat saved the city $ 13.2 million. Even mass transit systems have innovated with hybrid bus fleets to real-time tracking at bus stands. In addition,
655-411: A blue hat; the group agrees together how they will think, then they do the thinking, then they evaluate the outcomes of that thinking and what they should do next. Sequences (and indeed hats) may be used by individuals working alone or in groups. Example programs are shown below, each hat is typically used for approximately 2 minutes at a time—although at the start of a process an extended white hat session
786-416: A common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies. Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective products , processes, services , technologies , art works or business models that innovators make available to markets , governments and society . Innovation is related to, but not the same as, invention : innovation
917-409: A complex developmentally predetermined process which generates patterns of folds that are consistent between individuals and most species. The first groove to appear in the fourth month is the lateral cerebral fossa. The expanding caudal end of the hemisphere has to curve over in a forward direction to fit into the restricted space. This covers the fossa and turns it into a much deeper ridge known as
1048-405: A direction is symbolized by the act of putting on a colored hat, either literally or metaphorically. This metaphor of using an imaginary hat or cap as a symbol for a different thinking direction was first mentioned by De Bono as early as 1971 in his book "Lateral Thinking for Management" when describing a brainstorming framework. These metaphors allow for a more complete and elaborate segregation of
1179-481: A firm, other types of innovation include: social innovation , religious innovation, sustainable innovation (or green innovation ), and responsible innovation . One type of innovation that has been the focus of recent literature is open innovation or " crowd sourcing ." Open innovation refers to the use of individuals outside of an organizational context who have no expertise in a given area to solve complex problems. Similar to open innovation, user innovation
1310-466: A great deal of innovation is done by those actually implementing and using technologies and products as part of their normal activities. Sometimes user-innovators may become entrepreneurs , selling their product, they may choose to trade their innovation in exchange for other innovations, or they may be adopted by their suppliers. Nowadays, they may also choose to freely reveal their innovations, using methods like open source . In such networks of innovation
1441-477: A meeting may be called to review a particular problem and to develop a solution for the problem. The Six Thinking Hats method could then be used in a sequence to first explore the problem, then develop a set of solutions, and to finally choose a solution through critical examination of the solution set. The meeting may start with everyone assuming the Blue hat to discuss how the meeting will be conducted and to develop
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#17327943325461572-419: A microscope . The cortex is divided into two main functional areas – a motor cortex and a sensory cortex . The primary motor cortex , which sends axons down to motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord, occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory area. The primary sensory areas receive signals from the sensory nerves and tracts by way of relay nuclei in
1703-493: A political setting. Machiavelli portrays it as a strategy a Prince may employ in order to cope with a constantly changing world as well as the corruption within it. Here innovation is described as introducing change in government (new laws and institutions); Machiavelli's later book The Discourses (1528) characterises innovation as imitation, as a return to the original that has been corrupted by people and by time. Thus for Machiavelli innovation came with positive connotations. This
1834-412: A posterior diencephalon . The telencephalon gives rise to the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures. The diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus and hypothalamus. The hindbrain also splits into two areas – the metencephalon and the myelencephalon . The metencephalon gives rise to the cerebellum and pons. The myelencephalon gives rise to the medulla oblongata. Also during the fifth week,
1965-464: A product or service based on the known needs of current customers (e.g. faster microprocessors, flat screen televisions). Disruptive innovation in contrast refers to a process by which a new product or service creates a new market (e.g. transistor radio, free crowdsourced encyclopedia, etc.), eventually displacing established competitors. According to Christensen, disruptive innovations are critical to long-term success in business. Disruptive innovation
2096-440: A public service institution, or a new venture started by a lone individual in the family kitchen. It is the means by which the entrepreneur either creates new wealth-producing resources or endows existing resources with enhanced potential for creating wealth. In general, innovation is distinguished from creativity by its emphasis on the implementation of creative ideas in an economic setting. Amabile and Pratt in 2016, drawing on
2227-433: A range of different agents, by chance, or as a result of a major system failure. According to Peter F. Drucker , the general sources of innovations are changes in industry structure, in market structure, in local and global demographics, in human perception, in the amount of available scientific knowledge, etc. In the simplest linear model of innovation the traditionally recognized source is manufacturer innovation . This
2358-441: A result, organizations may incorporate users in focus groups (user centered approach), work closely with so-called lead users (lead user approach), or users might adapt their products themselves. The lead user method focuses on idea generation based on leading users to develop breakthrough innovations. U-STIR, a project to innovate Europe 's surface transportation system, employs such workshops. Regarding this user innovation ,
2489-415: A set of structures deep within the hemispheres involved in behaviour and movement regulation. The largest component is the striatum , others are the globus pallidus , the substantia nigra and the subthalamic nucleus . The striatum is divided into a ventral striatum, and dorsal striatum, subdivisions that are based upon function and connections. The ventral striatum consists of the nucleus accumbens and
2620-585: A study of how the software industry considers innovation, the following definition given by Crossan and Apaydin was considered to be the most complete. Crossan and Apaydin built on the definition given in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Oslo Manual: Innovation is production or adoption, assimilation, and exploitation of a value-added novelty in economic and social spheres; renewal and enlargement of products, services, and markets; development of new methods of production; and
2751-443: A subtype of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells . Astrocytes are the largest of the glial cells. They are stellate cells with many processes radiating from their cell bodies . Some of these processes end as perivascular endfeet on capillary walls. The glia limitans of the cortex is made up of astrocyte endfeet processes that serve in part to contain the cells of the brain. Mast cells are white blood cells that interact in
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#17327943325462882-416: A thickened strip called the neural plate . By the fourth week of development the neural plate has widened to give a broad cephalic end, a less broad middle part and a narrow caudal end. These swellings are known as the primary brain vesicles and represent the beginnings of the forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (rhombencephalon). Neural crest cells (derived from
3013-473: A very short 30 seconds or so to ensure that it is an instinctive gut reaction , rather than a form of judgement. This pace may have a positive impact on the thinking process. De Bono believed that the key to a successful use of the Six Thinking Hats methodology was the deliberate focusing of the discussion on a particular approach as needed during the meeting or collaboration session. For instance,
3144-488: Is 2 to 4 millimetres (0.079 to 0.157 in) thick, and deeply folded to give a convoluted appearance. Beneath the cortex is the cerebral white matter . The largest part of the cerebral cortex is the neocortex , which has six neuronal layers. The rest of the cortex is of allocortex , which has three or four layers. The cortex is mapped by divisions into about fifty different functional areas known as Brodmann's areas . These areas are distinctly different when seen under
3275-489: Is changing with the increased use of technology and companies are becoming increasingly competitive. Companies will have to downsize or reengineer their operations to remain competitive. This will affect employment as businesses will be forced to reduce the number of people employed while accomplishing the same amount of work if not more. For instance, former Mayor Martin O'Malley pushed the City of Baltimore to use CitiStat ,
3406-409: Is common to get everyone onto the same page, and the red hat is recommended to be used for a very short period to get a visceral gut reaction—about 30 seconds, and in practice often takes the form of dot-voting . Typically, a project will begin with an extended white hat action, as facts are assembled. Thereafter, each hat is used for a few minutes at a time only, except the red hat which is limited to
3537-405: Is evident. Why the cortex wrinkles and folds is not well-understood, but gyrification has been linked to intelligence and neurological disorders , and a number of gyrification theories have been proposed. These theories include those based on mechanical buckling , axonal tension , and differential tangential expansion . What is clear is that gyrification is not a random process, but rather
3668-400: Is expressed in interneurons. Proteins expressed in glial cells include astrocyte markers GFAP and S100B whereas myelin basic protein and the transcription factor OLIG2 are expressed in oligodendrocytes. Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colourless transcellular fluid that circulates around the brain in the subarachnoid space , in the ventricular system , and in the central canal of
3799-401: Is generated by baroreceptors in aortic bodies in the aortic arch , and passed to the brain along the afferent fibres of the vagus nerve. Information about the pressure changes in the carotid sinus comes from carotid bodies located near the carotid artery and this is passed via a nerve joining with the glossopharyngeal nerve . This information travels up to the solitary nucleus in
3930-430: Is however an exception in the usage of the concept of innovation from the 16th century and onward. No innovator from the renaissance until the late 19th century ever thought of applying the word innovator upon themselves, it was a word used to attack enemies. From the 1400s through the 1600s, the concept of innovation was pejorative – the term was an early-modern synonym for "rebellion", "revolt" and " heresy ". In
4061-405: Is made possible by the interconnections of neurons and their release of neurotransmitters in response to nerve impulses . Neurons connect to form neural pathways , neural circuits , and elaborate network systems . The whole circuitry is driven by the process of neurotransmission . The brain is protected by the skull , suspended in cerebrospinal fluid , and isolated from the bloodstream by
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4192-404: Is more apt to involve the practical implementation of an invention (i.e. new / improved ability) to make a meaningful impact in a market or society, and not all innovations require a new invention. Technical innovation often manifests itself via the engineering process when the problem being solved is of a technical or scientific nature. The opposite of innovation is exnovation . Surveys of
4323-455: Is narrowly furrowed into numerous curved transverse fissures. Viewed from underneath between the two lobes is the third lobe the flocculonodular lobe. The cerebellum rests at the back of the cranial cavity , lying beneath the occipital lobes, and is separated from these by the cerebellar tentorium , a sheet of fibre. It is connected to the brainstem by three pairs of nerve tracts called cerebellar peduncles . The superior pair connects to
4454-483: Is new to the firm, new to the market, new to the industry, or new to the world) and kind of innovation (i.e. whether it is process or product-service system innovation). Organizational researchers have also distinguished innovation separately from creativity, by providing an updated definition of these two related constructs: Workplace creativity concerns the cognitive and behavioral processes applied when attempting to generate novel ideas. Workplace innovation concerns
4585-505: Is often enabled by disruptive technology. Marco Iansiti and Karim R. Lakhani define foundational technology as having the potential to create new foundations for global technology systems over the longer term. Foundational technology tends to transform business operating models as entirely new business models emerge over many years, with gradual and steady adoption of the innovation leading to waves of technological and institutional change that gain momentum more slowly. The advent of
4716-461: Is often used to help optimize the design of web sites and mobile apps . This is used by major sites such as amazon.com , Facebook , Google , and Netflix . Procter & Gamble uses computer-simulated products and online user panels to conduct larger numbers of experiments to guide the design, packaging, and shelf placement of consumer products. Capital One uses this technique to drive credit card marketing offers. Scholars have argued that
4847-404: Is passed to the olfactory cortex . Taste is generated from receptors on the tongue and passed along the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves into the solitary nucleus in the brainstem. Some taste information is also passed from the pharynx into this area via the vagus nerve . Information is then passed from here through the thalamus into the gustatory cortex . Autonomic functions of
4978-416: Is passed up a series of neurons through tracts in the spinal cord. The dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway contains information about fine touch, vibration and position of joints. The pathway fibres travel up the back part of the spinal cord to the back part of the medulla, where they connect with second-order neurons that immediately send fibres across the midline . These fibres then travel upwards into
5109-469: Is sometimes used in pharmaceutical drug discovery . Thousands of chemical compounds are subjected to high-throughput screening to see if they have any activity against a target molecule which has been identified as biologically significant to a disease. Promising compounds can then be studied; modified to improve efficacy and reduce side effects, evaluated for cost of manufacture; and if successful turned into treatments. The related technique of A/B testing
5240-437: Is the cerebellum ( Latin : little brain ). The cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord are covered by three membranes called meninges . The membranes are the tough dura mater ; the middle arachnoid mater and the more delicate inner pia mater . Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the subarachnoid space and subarachnoid cisterns , which contain the cerebrospinal fluid . The outermost membrane of
5371-740: Is when companies rely on users of their goods and services to come up with, help to develop, and even help to implement new ideas. Innovation must be understood in the historical setting in which its processes were and are taking place. The first full-length discussion about innovation was published by the Greek philosopher and historian Xenophon (430–355 BCE). He viewed the concept as multifaceted and connected it to political action. The word for innovation that he uses, kainotomia , had previously occurred in two plays by Aristophanes ( c. 446 – c. 386 BCE). Plato (died c. 348 BCE) discussed innovation in his Laws dialogue and
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5502-644: Is where a person or business innovates in order to sell the innovation. Another source of innovation is end-user innovation . This is where a person or company develops an innovation for their own (personal or in-house) use because existing products do not meet their needs. MIT economist Eric von Hippel identified end-user innovation as the most important source in his classic book on the subject, "The Sources of Innovation" . The robotics engineer Joseph F. Engelberger asserts that innovations require only three things: The Kline chain-linked model of innovation places emphasis on potential market needs as drivers of
5633-462: The Jevons paradox , that describes negative consequences of eco-efficiency as energy-reducing effects tend to trigger mechanisms leading to energy-increasing effects. Several frameworks have been proposed for defining types of innovation. One framework proposed by Clayton Christensen draws a distinction between sustaining and disruptive innovations . Sustaining innovation is the improvement of
5764-662: The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 's HOPE VI initiatives turned severely distressed public housing in urban areas into revitalized , mixed-income environments; the Harlem Children's Zone used a community-based approach to educate local area children; and the Environmental Protection Agency 's brownfield grants facilitates turning over brownfields for environmental protection , green spaces , community and commercial development . Innovation may occur due to effort from
5895-446: The blood–brain barrier . Pericytes play a major role in the formation of the tight junctions. The barrier is less permeable to larger molecules, but is still permeable to water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and most fat-soluble substances (including anaesthetics and alcohol). The blood-brain barrier is not present in the circumventricular organs —which are structures in the brain that may need to respond to changes in body fluids—such as
6026-499: The blood–brain barrier . However, the brain is still susceptible to damage , disease , and infection . Damage can be caused by trauma , or a loss of blood supply known as a stroke . The brain is susceptible to degenerative disorders , such as Parkinson's disease , dementias including Alzheimer's disease , and multiple sclerosis . Psychiatric conditions , including schizophrenia and clinical depression , are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions. The brain can also be
6157-416: The central nervous system . It consists of the cerebrum , the brainstem and the cerebellum . The brain controls most of the activities of the body , processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the sensory nervous system . The brain integrates the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the skull of the head . The cerebrum,
6288-415: The cerebral hemispheres , forms the largest part of the brain and overlies the other brain structures. The outer region of the hemispheres, the cerebral cortex , is grey matter , consisting of cortical layers of neurons . Each hemisphere is divided into four main lobes – the frontal lobe , parietal lobe , temporal lobe , and occipital lobe . Three other lobes are included by some sources which are
6419-444: The claustrum , the various nuclei of the basal ganglia , the basal forebrain structures, and three circumventricular organs . Brain structures that are not on the midplane exist in pairs; for example, there are two hippocampi and two amygdalae. The cells of the brain include neurons and supportive glial cells . There are more than 86 billion neurons in the brain, and a more or less equal number of other cells. Brain activity
6550-451: The common carotid arteries . They enter the cranium through the carotid canal , travel through the cavernous sinus and enter the subarachnoid space . They then enter the circle of Willis , with two branches, the anterior cerebral arteries emerging. These branches travel forward and then upward along the longitudinal fissure , and supply the front and midline parts of the brain. One or more small anterior communicating arteries join
6681-470: The extrapyramidal system . The sensory nervous system is involved with the reception and processing of sensory information . This information is received through the cranial nerves, through tracts in the spinal cord, and directly at centres of the brain exposed to the blood. The brain also receives and interprets information from the special senses of vision , smell , hearing , and taste . Mixed motor and sensory signals are also integrated. From
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#17327943325466812-529: The frontal , temporal , parietal , and occipital lobes . The frontal lobe is associated with executive functions including self-control , planning , reasoning , and abstract thought , while the occipital lobe is dedicated to vision. Within each lobe, cortical areas are associated with specific functions, such as the sensory , motor , and association regions. Although the left and right hemispheres are broadly similar in shape and function, some functions are associated with one side , such as language in
6943-443: The lateral sulcus and this marks out the temporal lobe. By the sixth month other sulci have formed that demarcate the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes. A gene present in the human genome ( ARHGAP11B ) may play a major role in gyrification and encephalisation. The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the motor cortex , which is involved in planning and coordinating movement;
7074-428: The medial geniculate nucleus , and finally the auditory radiation to the auditory cortex . The sense of smell is generated by receptor cells in the epithelium of the olfactory mucosa in the nasal cavity . This information passes via the olfactory nerve which goes into the skull through a relatively permeable part . This nerve transmits to the neural circuitry of the olfactory bulb from where information
7205-541: The neuroimmune system in the brain. Mast cells in the central nervous system are present in a number of structures including the meninges; they mediate neuroimmune responses in inflammatory conditions and help to maintain the blood–brain barrier, particularly in brain regions where the barrier is absent. Mast cells serve the same general functions in the body and central nervous system, such as effecting or regulating allergic responses, innate and adaptive immunity , autoimmunity , and inflammation . Mast cells serve as
7336-401: The olfactory tubercle whereas the dorsal striatum consists of the caudate nucleus and the putamen . The putamen and the globus pallidus lie separated from the lateral ventricles and thalamus by the internal capsule , whereas the caudate nucleus stretches around and abuts the lateral ventricles on their outer sides. At the deepest part of the lateral sulcus between the insular cortex and
7467-762: The packet-switched communication protocol TCP/IP —originally introduced in 1972 to support a single use case for United States Department of Defense electronic communication (email), and which gained widespread adoption only in the mid-1990s with the advent of the World Wide Web —is a foundational technology. Another framework was suggested by Henderson and Clark. They divide innovation into four types; While Henderson and Clark as well as Christensen talk about technical innovation there are other kinds of innovation as well, such as service innovation and organizational innovation. As distinct from business-centric views of innovation concentrating on generating profit for
7598-428: The pineal gland , area postrema , and some areas of the hypothalamus . There is a similar blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier , which serves the same purpose as the blood–brain barrier, but facilitates the transport of different substances into the brain due to the distinct structural characteristics between the two barrier systems. At the beginning of the third week of development , the embryonic ectoderm forms
7729-419: The prefrontal cortex , which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and Broca’s area , which is essential for language production. The motor system of the brain is responsible for the generation and control of movement. Generated movements pass from the brain through nerves to motor neurons in the body, which control the action of muscles . The corticospinal tract carries movements from
7860-420: The spinal cord , with most connecting to interneurons , in turn connecting to lower motor neurons within the grey matter that then transmit the impulse to move to muscles themselves. The cerebellum and basal ganglia , play a role in fine, complex and coordinated muscle movements. Connections between the cortex and the basal ganglia control muscle tone, posture and movement initiation, and are referred to as
7991-497: The thalamus . Primary sensory areas include the visual cortex of the occipital lobe , the auditory cortex in parts of the temporal lobe and insular cortex , and the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe . The remaining parts of the cortex are called the association areas . These areas receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the complex cognitive processes of perception , thought , and decision-making . The main functions of
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#17327943325468122-441: The thinking process toward a distinct goal. A number of these are included in the materials provided to support the franchised training of the six hats method; however it is often necessary to adapt them to suit an individual purpose. Also, programs are often "emergent", which is to say that the group might plan the first few hats then the facilitator will see what seems to be the right way to go. Sequences always begin and end with
8253-431: The ventricles where the cerebrospinal fluid is produced and circulated. Below the corpus callosum is the septum pellucidum , a membrane that separates the lateral ventricles . Beneath the lateral ventricles is the thalamus and to the front and below is the hypothalamus . The hypothalamus leads on to the pituitary gland . At the back of the thalamus is the brainstem. The basal ganglia , also called basal nuclei, are
8384-424: The ventrobasal complex in the thalamus where they connect with third-order neurons which send fibres up to the sensory cortex. The spinothalamic tract carries information about pain, temperature, and gross touch. The pathway fibres travel up the spinal cord and connect with second-order neurons in the reticular formation of the brainstem for pain and temperature, and also terminate at the ventrobasal complex of
8515-463: The 1800s people promoting capitalism saw socialism as an innovation and spent a lot of energy working against it. For instance, Goldwin Smith (1823-1910) saw the spread of social innovations as an attack on money and banks. These social innovations were socialism, communism, nationalization, cooperative associations. In the 20th century, the concept of innovation did not become popular until after
8646-474: The Second World War of 1939–1945. This is the point in time when people started to talk about technological product innovation and tie it to the idea of economic growth and competitive advantage. Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), who contributed greatly to the study of innovation economics , is seen as the one who made the term popular. Schumpeter argued that industries must incessantly revolutionize
8777-492: The beginning of the 20th century, which had huge impacts for the economic concepts of factor endowments and comparative advantage as new combinations of resources or production techniques constantly transform markets to satisfy consumer needs. Hence, innovative behaviour becomes relevant for economic success. An early model included only three phases of innovation. According to Utterback (1971), these phases were: 1) idea generation, 2) problem solving, and 3) implementation. By
8908-402: The brain divides into repeating segments called neuromeres . In the hindbrain these are known as rhombomeres . A characteristic of the brain is the cortical folding known as gyrification . For just over five months of prenatal development the cortex is smooth. By the gestational age of 24 weeks, the wrinkled morphology showing the fissures that begin to mark out the lobes of the brain
9039-433: The brain include the regulation, or rhythmic control of the heart rate and rate of breathing , and maintaining homeostasis . Blood pressure and heart rate are influenced by the vasomotor centre of the medulla, which causes arteries and veins to be somewhat constricted at rest. It does this by influencing the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems via the vagus nerve . Information about blood pressure
9170-427: The brain is folded into ridges ( gyri ) and grooves ( sulci ), many of which are named, usually according to their position, such as the frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe or the central sulcus separating the central regions of the hemispheres. There are many small variations in the secondary and tertiary folds. The outer part of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex , made up of grey matter arranged in layers. It
9301-486: The brain, through the spinal cord , to the torso and limbs. The cranial nerves carry movements related to the eyes, mouth and face. Gross movement – such as locomotion and the movement of arms and legs – is generated in the motor cortex , divided into three parts: the primary motor cortex , found in the precentral gyrus and has sections dedicated to the movement of different body parts. These movements are supported and regulated by two other areas, lying anterior to
9432-450: The brain. The medical history of people with brain injury has provided insight into the function of each part of the brain. Neuroscience research has expanded considerably, and research is ongoing. In culture, the philosophy of mind has for centuries attempted to address the question of the nature of consciousness and the mind–body problem . The pseudoscience of phrenology attempted to localise personality attributes to regions of
9563-435: The brainstem. The brainstem also contains many cranial nerve nuclei and nuclei of peripheral nerves , as well as nuclei involved in the regulation of many essential processes including breathing , control of eye movements and balance. The reticular formation , a network of nuclei of ill-defined formation, is present within and along the length of the brainstem. Many nerve tracts , which transmit information to and from
9694-410: The cavernous sinus and superior and inferior petrosal sinuses. The sigmoid drains into the large internal jugular veins . The larger arteries throughout the brain supply blood to smaller capillaries . These smallest of blood vessels in the brain, are lined with cells joined by tight junctions and so fluids do not seep in or leak out to the same degree as they do in other capillaries; this creates
9825-464: The cerebral blood vessels. The pathway drains interstitial fluid from the tissue of the brain. The internal carotid arteries supply oxygenated blood to the front of the brain and the vertebral arteries supply blood to the back of the brain. These two circulations join in the circle of Willis , a ring of connected arteries that lies in the interpeduncular cistern between the midbrain and pons. The internal carotid arteries are branches of
9956-421: The cerebral cortex is the basement membrane of the pia mater called the glia limitans and is an important part of the blood–brain barrier . In 2023 a fourth meningeal membrane has been proposed known as the subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane . The living brain is very soft, having a gel-like consistency similar to soft tofu. The cortical layers of neurons constitute much of the cerebral grey matter , while
10087-411: The cerebral cortex to the rest of the body, pass through the brainstem. The human brain is primarily composed of neurons , glial cells , neural stem cells , and blood vessels . Types of neuron include interneurons , pyramidal cells including Betz cells , motor neurons ( upper and lower motor neurons ), and cerebellar Purkinje cells . Betz cells are the largest cells (by size of cell body) in
10218-404: The cerebrum and consists of the midbrain , pons and medulla . It lies in the back part of the skull , resting on the part of the base known as the clivus , and ends at the foramen magnum , a large opening in the occipital bone . The brainstem continues below this as the spinal cord , protected by the vertebral column . Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge directly from
10349-407: The cerebrum is the ventricular system , consisting of four interconnected ventricles in which cerebrospinal fluid is produced and circulated. Underneath the cerebral cortex are several structures, including the thalamus , the epithalamus , the pineal gland , the hypothalamus , the pituitary gland , and the subthalamus ; the limbic structures , including the amygdalae and the hippocampi ,
10480-423: The company of Nobel laureate William Shockley , co-inventor of the transistor , left to form an independent firm, Fairchild Semiconductor . After several years, Fairchild developed into a formidable presence in the sector. Eventually, these founders left to start their own companies based on their own unique ideas, and then leading employees started their own firms. Over the next 20 years this process resulted in
10611-408: The concepts of innovation and technology transfer revealed overlap. The more radical and revolutionary innovations tend to emerge from R&D, while more incremental innovations may emerge from practice – but there are many exceptions to each of these trends. Information technology and changing business processes and management style can produce a work climate favorable to innovation. For example,
10742-556: The cortex in the 19th century. In science fiction, brain transplants are imagined in tales such as the 1942 Donovan's Brain . The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.2–1.4 kg (2.6–3.1 lb) which is about 2% of the total body weight, with a volume of around 1260 cm in men and 1130 cm in women. There is substantial individual variation, with the standard reference range for men being 1,180–1,620 g (2.60–3.57 lb) and for women 1,030–1,400 g (2.27–3.09 lb). The cerebrum , consisting of
10873-402: The crest and migrate in a craniocaudal (head to tail) wave inside the tube. Cells at the cephalic end give rise to the brain, and cells at the caudal end give rise to the spinal cord. The tube flexes as it grows, forming the crescent-shaped cerebral hemispheres at the head. The cerebral hemispheres first appear on day 32. Early in the fourth week, the cephalic part bends sharply forward in
11004-443: The deeper subcortical regions of myelinated axons , make up the white matter . The white matter of the brain makes up about half of the total brain volume. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into nearly symmetrical left and right hemispheres by a deep groove, the longitudinal fissure . Asymmetry between the lobes is noted as a petalia . The hemispheres are connected by five commissures that span
11135-448: The dura mater and the covering of the skull. Blood from the cerebellum and midbrain drains into the great cerebral vein . Blood from the medulla and pons of the brainstem have a variable pattern of drainage, either into the spinal veins or into adjacent cerebral veins. The blood in the deep part of the brain drains, through a venous plexus into the cavernous sinus at the front, and the superior and inferior petrosal sinuses at
11266-723: The economic structure from within, that is: innovate with better or more effective processes and products, as well as with market distribution (such as the transition from the craft shop to factory). He famously asserted that " creative destruction is the essential fact about capitalism ". In business and in economics , innovation can provide a catalyst for growth when entrepreneurs continuously search for better ways to satisfy their consumer base with improved quality, durability, service and price - searches which may come to fruition in innovation with advanced technologies and organizational strategies. Schumpeter's findings coincided with rapid advances in transportation and communications in
11397-401: The ectoderm) populate the lateral edges of the plate at the neural folds . In the fourth week—during the neurulation stage —the neural folds close to form the neural tube , bringing together the neural crest cells at the neural crest . The neural crest runs the length of the tube with cranial neural crest cells at the cephalic end and caudal neural crest cells at the tail. Cells detach from
11528-564: The establishment of new management systems. It is both a process and an outcome. American sociologist Everett Rogers , defined it as follows: "An idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption" According to Alan Altshuler and Robert D. Behn, innovation includes original invention and creative use. These writers define innovation as generation, admission and realization of new ideas, products, services and processes. Two main dimensions of innovation are degree of novelty (i.e. whether an innovation
11659-419: The fibres from the temporal halves of the opposite retinas to form the optic tracts . The arrangements of the eyes' optics and the visual pathways mean vision from the left visual field is received by the right half of each retina, is processed by the right visual cortex, and vice versa. The optic tract fibres reach the brain at the lateral geniculate nucleus , and travel through the optic radiation to reach
11790-484: The frontal lobe are to control attention , abstract thinking, behaviour, problem-solving tasks, and physical reactions and personality. The occipital lobe is the smallest lobe; its main functions are visual reception, visual-spatial processing, movement, and colour recognition . There is a smaller occipital lobule in the lobe known as the cuneus . The temporal lobe controls auditory and visual memories , language , and some hearing and speech. The cerebrum contains
11921-529: The goals and objectives. The discussion may then move to Red hat thinking in order to collect opinions and reactions to the problem. This phase may also be used to develop constraints for the actual solution such as who will be affected by the problem and/or solutions. Next the discussion may move to the ( Yellow then) Green hat in order to generate ideas and possible solutions. Next the discussion may move between White hat thinking as part of developing information and Black hat thinking to develop criticisms of
12052-429: The growing use of mobile data terminals in vehicles, that serve as communication hubs between vehicles and a control center, automatically send data on location, passenger counts, engine performance, mileage and other information. This tool helps to deliver and manage transportation systems. Still other innovative strategies include hospitals digitizing medical information in electronic medical records . For example,
12183-465: The hats is unnatural, uncomfortable or even counterproductive and against their better judgement. A compelling example presented is sensitivity to "mismatch" stimuli. This is presented as a valuable survival instinct because, in the natural world, the thing that is out of the ordinary may well be dangerous. This mode is identified as the root of negative judgement and critical thinking . Colored hats are used as metaphors for each direction. Switching to
12314-920: The innovation process, and describes the complex and often iterative feedback loops between marketing, design, manufacturing, and R&D. In the 21st century the Islamic State (IS) movement, while decrying religious innovations , has innovated in military tactics, recruitment, ideology and geopolitical activity. Innovation by businesses is achieved in many ways, with much attention now given to formal research and development (R&D) for "breakthrough innovations". R&D help spur on patents and other scientific innovations that leads to productive growth in such areas as industry, medicine, engineering, and government. Yet, innovations can be developed by less formal on-the-job modifications of practice, through exchange and combination of professional experience and by many other routes. Investigation of relationship between
12445-528: The innovator. This concept meant "renewing" and was incorporated into the new Latin verb word innovo ("I renew" or "I restore") in the centuries that followed. The Vulgate version of the Bible (late 4th century CE) used the word in spiritual as well as political contexts. It also appeared in poetry, mainly with spiritual connotations, but was also connected to political, material and cultural aspects. Machiavelli 's The Prince (1513) discusses innovation in
12576-430: The internal carotid arteries. Cerebral veins drain deoxygenated blood from the brain. The brain has two main networks of veins : an exterior or superficial network , on the surface of the cerebrum that has three branches, and an interior network . These two networks communicate via anastomosing (joining) veins. The veins of the brain drain into larger cavities of the dural venous sinuses usually situated between
12707-425: The largest part of the human brain, consists of two cerebral hemispheres . Each hemisphere has an inner core composed of white matter , and an outer surface – the cerebral cortex – composed of grey matter . The cortex has an outer layer, the neocortex , and an inner allocortex . The neocortex is made up of six neuronal layers , while the allocortex has three or four. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes –
12838-419: The left and visual-spatial ability in the right. The hemispheres are connected by commissural nerve tracts , the largest being the corpus callosum . The cerebrum is connected by the brainstem to the spinal cord. The brainstem consists of the midbrain , the pons , and the medulla oblongata . The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem by three pairs of nerve tracts called cerebellar peduncles . Within
12969-447: The left and right subclavian arteries . They travel upward through transverse foramina which are spaces in the cervical vertebrae . Each side enters the cranial cavity through the foramen magnum along the corresponding side of the medulla. They give off one of the three cerebellar branches . The vertebral arteries join in front of the middle part of the medulla to form the larger basilar artery , which sends multiple branches to supply
13100-537: The literature on innovation have found a variety of definitions. In 2009, Baregheh et al. found around 60 definitions in different scientific papers, while a 2014 survey found over 40. Based on their survey, Baragheh et al. attempted to formulate a multidisciplinary definition and arrived at the following: "Innovation is the multi-stage process whereby organizations transform ideas into new/improved products, service or processes, in order to advance, compete and differentiate themselves successfully in their marketplace" In
13231-479: The literature, distinguish between creativity ("the production of novel and useful ideas by an individual or small group of individuals working together") and innovation ("the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization"). In 1957 the economist Robert Solow was able to demonstrate that economic growth had two components. The first component could be attributed to growth in production including wage labour and capital . The second component
13362-404: The longitudinal fissure, the largest of these is the corpus callosum . Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into four main lobes ; the frontal lobe , parietal lobe , temporal lobe , and occipital lobe , named according to the skull bones that overlie them. Each lobe is associated with one or two specialised functions though there is some functional overlap between them. The surface of
13493-399: The main effector cell through which pathogens can affect the biochemical signaling that takes place between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system . Some 400 genes are shown to be brain-specific. In all neurons, ELAVL3 is expressed, and in pyramidal cells, NRGN and REEP2 are also expressed. GAD1 – essential for the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter GABA –
13624-399: The main purpose for innovation today is profit maximization and capital valorisation . Consequently, programs of organizational innovation are typically tightly linked to organizational goals and growth objectives, to the business plan , and to market competitive positioning . Davila et al. (2006) note, "Companies cannot grow through cost reduction and reengineering alone... Innovation
13755-435: The medulla and pons, and the two other anterior and superior cerebellar branches . Finally, the basilar artery divides into two posterior cerebral arteries . These travel outwards, around the superior cerebellar peduncles, and along the top of the cerebellar tentorium, where it sends branches to supply the temporal and occipital lobes. Each posterior cerebral artery sends a small posterior communicating artery to join with
13886-469: The medulla. Signals from here influence the vasomotor centre to adjust vein and artery constriction accordingly. Innovation Innovation is the practical implementation of ideas that result in the introduction of new goods or services or improvement in offering goods or services. ISO TC 279 in the standard ISO 56000:2020 defines innovation as "a new or changed entity, realizing or redistributing value ". Others have different definitions;
14017-513: The midbrain; the middle pair connects to the medulla, and the inferior pair connects to the pons. The cerebellum consists of an inner medulla of white matter and an outer cortex of richly folded grey matter. The cerebellum's anterior and posterior lobes appear to play a role in the coordination and smoothing of complex motor movements, and the flocculonodular lobe in the maintenance of balance although debate exists as to its cognitive, behavioural and motor functions. The brainstem lies beneath
14148-669: The momentous startup-company explosion of information-technology firms. Silicon Valley began as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley's eight former employees. All organizations can innovate, including for example hospitals, universities, and local governments. The organization requires a proper structure in order to retain competitive advantage. Organizations can also improve profits and performance by providing work groups opportunities and resources to innovate, in addition to employee's core job tasks. Executives and managers have been advised to break away from traditional ways of thinking and use change to their advantage. The world of work
14279-447: The nervous system. The adult human brain is estimated to contain 86±8 billion neurons, with a roughly equal number (85±10 billion) of non-neuronal cells. Out of these neurons, 16 billion (19%) are located in the cerebral cortex, and 69 billion (80%) are in the cerebellum. Types of glial cell are astrocytes (including Bergmann glia ), oligodendrocytes , ependymal cells (including tanycytes ), radial glial cells , microglia , and
14410-403: The nucleus basalis, is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system to the striatum and neocortex. The cerebellum is divided into an anterior lobe , a posterior lobe , and the flocculonodular lobe . The anterior and posterior lobes are connected in the middle by the vermis . Compared to the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum has a much thinner outer cortex that
14541-464: The political and societal context in which innovation is taking place. According to Shannon Walsh, "innovation today is best understood as innovation under capital" (p. 346). This means that the current hegemonic purpose for innovation is capital valorisation and profit maximization, exemplified by the appropriation of knowledge (e.g., through patenting ), the widespread practice of Planned obsolescence (incl. lack of repairability by design ), and
14672-435: The primary motor cortex: the premotor area and the supplementary motor area . The hands and mouth have a much larger area dedicated to them than other body parts, allowing finer movement; this has been visualised in a motor homunculus . Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the corticospinal tract along the front of the medulla and cross over ( decussate ) at the medullary pyramids . These then travel down
14803-436: The processes applied when attempting to implement new ideas. Specifically, innovation involves some combination of problem/opportunity identification, the introduction, adoption or modification of new ideas germane to organizational needs, the promotion of these ideas, and the practical implementation of these ideas. Peter Drucker wrote: Innovation is the specific function of entrepreneurship, whether in an existing business,
14934-416: The sides, and the inferior sagittal sinus at the back. Blood drains from the outer brain into the large superior sagittal sinus , which rests in the midline on top of the brain. Blood from here joins with blood from the straight sinus at the confluence of sinuses . Blood from here drains into the left and right transverse sinuses . These then drain into the sigmoid sinuses , which receive blood from
15065-524: The site of tumours , both benign and malignant ; these mostly originate from other sites in the body . The study of the anatomy of the brain is neuroanatomy , while the study of its function is neuroscience . Numerous techniques are used to study the brain. Specimens from other animals, which may be examined microscopically , have traditionally provided much information. Medical imaging technologies such as functional neuroimaging , and electroencephalography (EEG) recordings are important in studying
15196-419: The skin, the brain receives information about fine touch , pressure , pain , vibration and temperature . From the joints, the brain receives information about joint position . The sensory cortex is found just near the motor cortex, and, like the motor cortex, has areas related to sensation from different body parts. Sensation collected by a sensory receptor on the skin is changed to a nerve signal, that
15327-434: The software tool company Atlassian conducts quarterly "ShipIt Days" in which employees may work on anything related to the company's products. Google employees work on self-directed projects for 20% of their time (known as Innovation Time Off ). Both companies cite these bottom-up processes as major sources for new products and features. An important innovation factor includes customers buying products or using services. As
15458-460: The solution set. Because everyone is focused on a particular approach at any one time, the group tends to be more collaborative than if one person is reacting emotionally (Red hat) while another person is trying to be objective (White hat) and still another person is being critical of the points which emerge from the discussion (Black hat). The hats aid individuals in addressing problems from a variety of angles, and focus individuals on deficiencies in
15589-416: The spinal cord. It also fills some gaps in the subarachnoid space, known as subarachnoid cisterns . The four ventricles, two lateral , a third , and a fourth ventricle , all contain a choroid plexus that produces cerebrospinal fluid. The third ventricle lies in the midline and is connected to the lateral ventricles. A single duct , the cerebral aqueduct between the pons and the cerebellum, connects
15720-441: The striatum is a thin neuronal sheet called the claustrum . Below and in front of the striatum are a number of basal forebrain structures. These include the nucleus basalis , diagonal band of Broca , substantia innominata , and the medial septal nucleus . These structures are important in producing the neurotransmitter , acetylcholine , which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain, in particular
15851-405: The subarachnoid space. It is constantly being regenerated and absorbed, and is replaced about once every 5–6 hours. A glymphatic system has been described as the lymphatic drainage system of the brain. The brain-wide glymphatic pathway includes drainage routes from the cerebrospinal fluid, and from the meningeal lymphatic vessels that are associated with the dural sinuses , and run alongside
15982-415: The thalamus for gross touch. Vision is generated by light that hits the retina of the eye. Photoreceptors in the retina transduce the sensory stimulus of light into an electrical nerve signal that is sent to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Visual signals leave the retinas through the optic nerves . Optic nerve fibres from the retinas' nasal halves cross to the opposite sides joining
16113-441: The thinking directions. The six thinking hats indicate problems and solutions about an idea the thinker may come up with. Similarly, "The Five Stages of Thinking" method—a set of tools corresponding to all six thinking hats—first appears in his CoRT Thinking Programme in 1973: Having identified the six modes of thinking that can be accessed, distinct programs can be created. These are sequences of hats which encompass and structure
16244-441: The third ventricle to the fourth ventricle. Three separate openings, the middle and two lateral apertures , drain the cerebrospinal fluid from the fourth ventricle to the cisterna magna , one of the major cisterns. From here, cerebrospinal fluid circulates around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and pia mater. At any one time, there is about 150mL of cerebrospinal fluid – most within
16375-507: The time one completed phase 2, one had an invention, but until one got it to the point of having an economic impact, one did not have an innovation. Diffusion was not considered a phase of innovation. Focus at this point in time was on manufacturing. A prime example of innovation involved the boom of Silicon Valley start-ups out of the Stanford Industrial Park . In 1957, dissatisfied employees of Shockley Semiconductor ,
16506-405: The two anterior cerebral arteries shortly after they emerge as branches. The internal carotid arteries continue forward as the middle cerebral arteries . They travel sideways along the sphenoid bone of the eye socket , then upwards through the insula cortex , where final branches arise. The middle cerebral arteries send branches along their length. The vertebral arteries emerge as branches of
16637-517: The users or communities of users can further develop technologies and reinvent their social meaning. One technique for innovating a solution to an identified problem is to actually attempt an experiment with many possible solutions. This technique was famously used by Thomas Edison's laboratory to find a version of the incandescent light bulb economically viable for home use, which involved searching through thousands of possible filament designs before settling on carbonized bamboo. This technique
16768-420: The visual cortex. Hearing and balance are both generated in the inner ear . Sound results in vibrations of the ossicles which continue finally to the hearing organ , and change in balance results in movement of liquids within the inner ear . This creates a nerve signal that passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve . From here, it passes through to the cochlear nuclei , the superior olivary nucleus ,
16899-594: The way that they approach problem solving. In 2005, the tool found some use in the United Kingdom innovation sector, where it was offered by some facilitation companies and had been trialled within the United Kingdom's civil service . Human brain This is an accepted version of this page The brain is the central organ of the human nervous system , and with the spinal cord , comprises
17030-652: Was found to be productivity . Ever since, economic historians have tried to explain the process of innovation itself, rather than assuming that technological inventions and technological progress result in productivity growth. The concept of innovation emerged after the Second World War, mostly thanks to the works of Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950) who described the economic effects of innovation processes as Constructive destruction . Today, consistent neo-Schumpeterian scholars see innovation not as neutral or apolitical processes. Rather, innovation can be seen as socially constructed processes. Therefore, its conception depends on
17161-503: Was not very fond of the concept. He was skeptical to it both in culture (dancing and art) and in education (he did not believe in introducing new games and toys to the kids). Aristotle (384–322 BCE) did not like organizational innovations: he believed that all possible forms of organization had been discovered. Before the 4th century in Rome, the words novitas and res nova / nova res were used with either negative or positive judgment on
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