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59-594: It is more specifically called the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun or the Sixteen Prefectures of You and Ji ( Chinese : 幽蓟十六州 ; pinyin : Yōujì Shíliù Zhōu ). After the Tang dynasty collapsed, they became a site of contention between various ethnicities of North China, including Han , Khitan , Jurchen , and Mongol . In 938 they were ceded by Shi Jingtang of the Shatuo -led Later Jin to

118-588: A retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to

177-586: A biography on the eunuch Wang Ji'en. The fifteen-year-old Emperor Shengzong led the Liao's decisive victory at the Battle of Qigou Pass. Ethnic Han elites held a prominent position in the Liao state alongside Khitan elites. One of them was a lineage with the surname Hán (韓). The Khitan had abducted the Hán clan from Jizhou and despite being ethnic Han, they were thoroughly Kitanized culturally and linguistically and served

236-509: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from

295-529: A coastline to the Bohai Sea are, from the south going clockwise: Shandong , Hebei, Tianjin (Tientsin), Hebei again, and Liaoning . Some of the major rivers draining into the gulf include the Yellow River , Xiaoqing River , Hai River , Luan River , Dai River , Daling River , Xiaoling River, Liao River and Daliao River . There are a few important oil reserves in the vicinity of the gulf, including

354-534: A massive army to Datong in Shanxi to swear brotherhood with Li Keyong who nominally served the severely weakened Tang dynasty as Jiedushi of Shanxi on the westernmost point of the defense line. The rise of Khitan power under Abaoji occurred just as China was falling into turmoil. The fall of the Tang dynasty in 907 led to power struggles among rival warlords and to the creation of a number of short-lived polities known as

413-526: A maximum depth of about 80 meters (260 ft) located in the northern part of the Bohai Strait. The Bohai Sea is enclosed by three provinces and one direct-administered municipality from three different regions of China — Liaoning Province (of Northeast China ), Hebei Province and Tianjin Municipality (of North China ), and Shandong Province (of East China ). It is the center of

472-601: A new campaign from his Southern Capital (within the Sixteen prefectures), triggering the collapse of the Later Jin. Having seized the Later Jin capital of Kaifeng in early 947, later that year he declared the name of his dynasty as "Great Liao" (大遼) and proclaimed himself Emperor of China . The Emperor Taizong of Liao quickly became disillusioned with governing so many sedentary people who resented Liao rule, and decided to retreat back to his Southern Capital. Heavy resistance on

531-639: A province. The Sixteen Prefectures stretched from Ji County in modern-day Tianjin Municipality to Datong in Shanxi Province, extending contiguously along the mountains that divide the agrarian plains of central China from the pastoralist steppes to the north. Several dynasties including the Qin and the Northern Dynasties before the Tang built the Great Wall along these mountains. Seven of

590-414: A regent for her 11-year-old son Emperor Shengzong of Liao and led military campaigns along with her son until her death. The Song dynasty once again tried to attack in 986, to take advantage of Shengzong's youth. They sent forces against the territory on three fronts, but the Liao scored decisive victories over all three Song forces. Empress Dowager Chengtian personally led the Liao army in campaigns against

649-460: A road and rail tunnel across the Bohai Strait to connect the Liaodong and Shandong peninsulas. When completed, the tunnel would be 106 kilometers (66 mi) long, making it twice as long as the channel tunnel connecting England and France. In July 2013, a modified plan was announced, involving a 123-kilometer (76 mi)-long tunnel between Dalian , Liaoning and Yantai , Shandong. The tunnel

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708-471: A year of tense diplomatic exchanges, in 943 the Liao dynasty finally resolved to punish Shi for his insubordination. For two years the engagements were indecisive, until in 945, the Emperor Taizong of Liao, who was leading his troops in battle, was almost killed in a rout of his forces in southern Hebei ; he had to flee the battlefield on a camel. The following year, however, the Liao emperor launched

767-869: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;

826-493: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to

885-683: The Bohai Economic Rim , and its proximity to the Chinese capital of Beijing and the municipality of Tianjin makes it one of the busiest seaways in the world. The entrance to the Bohai Sea is considered a part of the territorial sea of the People's Republic of China due to the presence of the Miaodao islands . China declared the Bohai sea to be part of its inland waters in 1958. During

944-645: The Cape of Penglai on the northernmost protrusion of Shandong Peninsula . Due to its proximity to the capital city Beijing and the population of its surrounding provinces exceeding 210 million, the exit of the Bohai Gulf to the Yellow Sea , the Bohai Strait ( 渤海海峡 ; 渤海海峽 ), has become one of busiest sea routes in recent times. Due to the Changshan Island Chain traversing the southern half of

1003-637: The Five Dynasties . The first of these dynasties was founded by Zhu Wen , another Jiedushi, who declared himself emperor of the Later Liang in 907 after deposing the last Tang emperor . In 923 his dynasty was overthrown by Li Keyong's son, Li Cunxu , who then proclaimed the Later Tang . The Sixteen Prefectures passed into Liao hands in 938, when the Liao dynasty supported Shi Jingtang, another military governor of Shanxi, in his revolt against

1062-499: The Kensiu language . Bohai Sea The Bohai Sea ( Chinese : 渤海 ; pinyin : Bó Hǎi ; lit. 'Bo Sea') is a gulf / inland sea approximately 77,000 km (30,000 sq mi) in area on the east coast of Mainland China . It is the northwestern and innermost extension of the Yellow Sea , to which it connects via the Bohai Strait. It has a mean depth of approximately 18 meters (59 ft), with

1121-591: The Khitan Empire . The northern territories were then the site of contention between the subsequent Later Zhou , its successour Song dynasty , and Khitan-led Liao dynasty. In 1120s, two principal cities, Youzhou (also called Yanzhou, modern Beijing ) and Yunzhou (modern Datong , Shanxi) were taken away from the Liao when the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty conquered the region. In 1123, the Jin ceded most of

1180-567: The Pleistocene , the Bohai Sea experienced numerous glacioeustatic transgressions and regressions , as evidenced by sediment cores sampled from the seafloor showing fluvial floodplain conditions during intervals of low sea level. Until the early 20th century, Bo Hai was often called the Gulf of Zhili (Chinese: 直隸海灣 ; pinyin: Zhílì Hǎiwān ) or Gulf of Beizhili ( 北直隸海灣 ; Běizhílì Hǎiwān ). The romanization systems widely used in

1239-640: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝   'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for

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1298-721: The Shengli Field . Important islands or island groups in the gulf include the Changshan Archipelago , Juehua Island ( 觉华岛 ; 覺華島 ), Bijia Mountain , Changxing Island , Xizhong Island , the East/West Mayi Islands ( 蚂蚁岛 ), Zhu Island ( 猪岛 ; 豬島 ) and She Island ( 蛇岛 ; 蛇島 ). The opening of the Bohai Sea is bounded by the Changshan Archipelago between Dalian 's Lüshunkou District on the southern tip of Liaodong Peninsula , and

1357-547: The 1960s. It still produces about half a million barrels a day, but is declining . Production is dominated by Chinese majors ( China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) was mostly created for this region), but foreign companies, including ConocoPhillips and Roc Oil Company , are present. The Gudao Field, located in the Zhanhua sedimentary basin , was discovered in 1968, based on gravity, magnetic and seismic surveys conducted between 1963 and 1964. The reservoir includes

1416-614: The 960s into the mid-970s, during the reign of the Emperor Taizu of Song . The Song dynasty was still focusing on trying to reunify southern China. However, despite the exchange of embassies in 974 and the growth of profitable trade between the two, there were still two fatal flaws to the relationship. One concerned continued support for the Northern Han . The other was the Song dynasty's refusal to accept continued Liao possession of

1475-411: The Bohai rim, even though strictly speaking they lie outside the limits of the sea. The Port of Longkou reached 70 million tons of cargo in 2013, and is expected to reach the 100 million ton landmark in the near future. The Bohai Bay contains significant oil and gas reserves, which provide much of China's offshore production. The main field in the region, named Shengli , has been exploited since

1534-536: The Guantao ( Miocene ) and Minghuazhen ( Pliocene ) geologic formations within the dome-like anticline . The Suizhong 36-1 Oil Field was discovered in 1987, and produces from Oligocene fluvial - deltaic and lacustrine sandstones . Oil spills have been reported frequently in this region: three spills occurred in a two-month timeframe in 2011. In 2024, CNOOC discovered a 100 million ton oilfield in Bohai Sea. In February 2011, China announced that it would build

1593-687: The Hedong Commandery based in Yunzhou, modern Datong. The historian Frederick W. Mote writes that there were actually 19 prefectures but does not specify them. Chinese historians do not consider Yíngzhou (营州; modern Qian'an , Hebei) and Pingzhou (平州; modern Lulong , Hebei) to be part of the Sixteen Prefectures because they had already been occupied by the Liao dynasty during the Later Tang , prior to Shi Jingtang ’s cession. Yizhou (易州; modern Yi County , Hebei), which fell to

1652-643: The Khitan crowned Yelü Abaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao) as their new Great Khan , the first from the Yelü tribe after some two centuries of leadership by the Yaolian clan. Abaoji coveted the plains of North China, a rich source of plunder that was guarded by a line of passes and fortifications stretching from mountainous northern Shanxi to the Bo Sea . In 905 Abaoji had already started to intervene in northern China by leading

1711-620: The Later Tang. Confident in his own military strength, the Liao emperor, Abaoji's second son Yelü Deguang (Emperor Taizong of Liao), convinced Shi to found a new dynasty (the Later Jin ), but also to cede a large band of territory to the Liao that represented the entire northern China defense line. The Liao dynasty now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the northern China plains. The Khitan-led Liao dynasty kept using Chinese administrative forms to administer

1770-472: The Liao after the cession, is also excluded from the count of 16. The Liao created two new prefectures, Jingzhou (景州 modern Zunhua , Hebei) from Jizhou and Luanzhou (滦州; Luan County , Hebei) from Pingzhou, which have not been included in the original 16. The year 907 and subsequent collapse of the Tang dynasty was a turning point in East Asian history. On that year the pastoral and nomadic people known as

1829-446: The Liao empire had been divided into. The Sixteen Prefectures had become the springboard from which the Liao dynasty would exert its influence on northern China. Shi Jingtang, the Later Jin emperor who had ceded the Sixteen Prefectures to the Liao dynasty in 937, died in 942. He had been a staunch ally (some say a puppet) of the Khitan, but his successor Shi Chonggui refused to recognize the Emperor Taizong of Liao as his superior. After

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1888-479: The Liao imperial family and whose paternal ancestors served the Liao dynasty from the time of Abaoji's reign. Han Derang was the ethnic Han minister who had a love affair with the Empress Dowager Chengtian , and Chengtian was rumoured to have a son with him. Through the 990s, relations between the Song and Liao steadily worsened. Beginning in 999, the Liao would use the Sixteen Prefectures as

1947-450: The Liao loyally in military and political positions along with several other ethnic Han elite families who were Kitanized. The loyalty of the Han population of the Liao to the Liao rulers frustrated the Song dynasty ruled by ethnic Han. Khitan women from the imperial consort clan were given to the men of the Hán family for marriage. One member of this lineage was Han Derang (韓德讓), who was close to

2006-608: The Liao were viewed as hostile enemies by the Song dynasty. Ethnic Han from the Song dynasty also defected to the Jin. Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are a standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until

2065-502: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China

2124-528: The Sixteen Prefectures were located inside (south) of the Inner Great Wall. The other eleven were located in between the Inner and Outer Great Walls. The Tang did not build Great Walls but used frontier military commanders to guard against the northern tribes. The Fanyang or Youzhou-Jizhou Commandery, based in modern-day Beijing commanded 11 of the Sixteen Prefectures. The other seven were commanded by

2183-616: The Sixteen Prefectures. When the Song were successful in finally incorporating the Northern Han in 979, the Song decided to launch an offensive against the Liao in the Sixteen Prefectures. Emperor Taizong of Song led his weary and ill-supplied troops from toward the Liao Southern Capital (present-day Beijing). The Liao boundary was reached in May and they initially encountered little resistance. By July 20, they had attacked

2242-556: The Song during their invasion of Liao in 986 and defeated them in battle, fighting the retreating Chinese army. She then ordered the castration of around 100 ethnic Chinese boys she had captured in China, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en . The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks. The History of Liao (遼史) described and praised Empress Chengtian's capture and mass castration of Chinese boys in

2301-508: The Song dynasty reclaimed the Sixteen Prefectures, they were "fiercely resisted" by the Han population there who had previously been under Liao rule, while when the Jin dynasty invaded that area, the Han population did not oppose them at all and handed over the Southern Capital (present-day Beijing , then known as Yanjing) to them. The Jin dynasty were supported by the anti-Song, Beijing-based noble Han clans. Ethnic Han who worked for

2360-403: The Southern Capital. Ten days later, the first contingent of Liao cavalry arrived. The ensuing Battle of Gaoliang River on August 1 near the Southern Capital resulted in a complete rout of Song forces, who had to retreat back to Kaifeng . The Sixteen Prefectures would remain in Liao hands. After Emperor Jingzong of Liao died, Empress Dowager Chengtian took power at age 30 in 982, serving as

2419-532: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,

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2478-572: The West at the time rendered these names as variations of "Jili", "Chihli", "Pechihli", or "Pe-Chihli". Zhili and North Zhili were historic provinces in an area surrounding Beijing that approximately corresponds to what is now Hebei Province. There are three major bays inside the Bohai Gulf: Laizhou Bay to the south, Bohai Bay to the west, and Liaodong Bay to the north. The provincial-level administrative divisions that have

2537-591: The counties and prefectures they had captured. They named Datong (on the western end of the Sixteen Prefectures) their Western Capital, and in 938 built a new fortified city at Youzhou (near modern-day Beijing), which they turned into their Southern Capital . Under Liao rule, the Sixteen Prefectures thus represented two of the Liao dynasty's five divisions. Both sections were part of the Southern Chancellery, one of two broader divisions

2596-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from

2655-550: The launching pad for repeated but indecisive attacks on the Song. Then, in 1004, the Emperor Shengzong of Liao launched another major campaign against the Song. The Chanyuan Treaty signed in early 1005 resulted in annual tribute paid to the Liao dynasty by the Song dynasty. This treaty was the guide by which relations between the two dynasties would progress until the fall of the Liao dynasty. The Sixteen Prefectures would remain in their possession until that time. When

2714-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as

2773-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In

2832-983: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often

2891-452: The middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of the predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is

2950-677: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as

3009-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as

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3068-504: The restoration of Han rule. They sent a Northern Expedition to Zhongyuan , overthrowing the Yuan's rule in China proper and establishing Ming. The Sixteen Prefectures were then restored to Han rule. The Sixteen Prefectures were administrative units established during the Tang dynasty. Under the Tang, each prefecture or zhou was a unit of administration larger than a county but smaller than

3127-520: The retreat route and Taizong's death in 947 provoked a succession crisis in the Liao government, and an opportunity for a new dynasty in northern China. Still, the territory remained in Liao hands. However, by 960, the Song dynasty had ended the turmoil that northern China had endured since 907, and by 979, they had essentially unified southern China, but lost the Sixteen Prefectures. The Liao and Song were actually developing reasonably amicable relations in

3186-459: The strait, the strait is subdivided into several channels : (from north to south, the most commonly used ones in bold ) There are five major ports along the Bohai Sea rim, with throughputs over 100 million tons, though the port of Tangshan is further subdivided into Jingtang and Caofeidian: Caofeidian and Jingtang are usually treated as one port for statistical purposes. The ports of Dalian and Yantai are also traditionally considered part of

3245-638: The territories except Yunzhou to the Northern Song, but retook them in 1125. The loss of the Sixteen Prefectures exposed the plains of central China (zhongyuan) to the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. The Mongols would later conquer the Jin and Song dynasties, establishing the Yuan dynasty of China. In 1368, Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty ordered general Xu Da and Chang Yuchun to call for

3304-636: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with

3363-985: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write

3422-412: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being

3481-418: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c.  200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c.  the 5th century . Although

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