75-427: Sindhis ( / ˈ s ɪ n d iː z / ; سنڌي ( Perso-Arabic ) , सिन्धी ( Devanagari ) ; romanized : sindhī ; pronounced [sɪndʱiː] ) are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group , originating from and native to Sindh region of Pakistan, who share a common Sindhi culture , history and language . The historical homeland of Sindhis is bordered by the southeastern part of Balochistan ,
150-405: A state government . The governing powers of the states are shared between the state government and the union government . On the other hand, the union territories are directly governed by the union government. The Indian Empire was a very complex political entity consisting of various imperial divisions and states and territories of varying autonomy. At the time of its establishment in 1876, it
225-529: A common ethnicity and language. Islam in Sindh has a long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 CE. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up over 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as
300-433: A notable example in Sindh being that of Mohenjo Daro . Built around 2500 BCE., it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilisation or Harappan culture , with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewer systems. It was one of the world's earliest major cities , contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Minoan Crete , and Caral-Supe . Mohenjo-daro
375-600: A quarter of the city to Muslims and built a mosque there. At Ror , 6000 fighting men were massacred with their families enslaved. The massacre at Brahamanabad has various accounts of 6,000 to 26,000 inhabitants slaughtered. In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the Mughal Empire by Akbar , himself born in the Rajputana kingdom in Umerkot in Sindh. Mughal rule from their provincial capital of Thatta
450-477: A separate law for governing Hindu marriages . Per community estimates, there are approximately 10,000 Sikhs in Sindh. Hinduism along with Buddhism was the predominant religion in Sindh before the Arab Islamic conquest. The Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang , who visited the region in the years 630–644, said that Buddhism was declining in the region. While Buddhism declined and ultimately disappeared after
525-464: A sovereign democratic republic. The new republic was also declared to be a "Union of States". The constitution of 1950 distinguished between three main types of states: Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu -speaking northern districts of Madras State . The French enclave of Chandernagore was transferred to West Bengal in 1954. In the same year Pondicherry , comprising
600-462: A wide variety of languages aside from Arabic, including Persian , Malay and Urdu , which are not Semitic . Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent phonemes that do not appear in Arabic phonology . For example, the Arabic language lacks a voiceless bilabial plosive (the [p] sound), therefore many languages add their own letter to represent [p] in the script, though
675-738: Is derived from the Sanskrit Sindhu , which translates as "river" or "sea body"; the Greeks used the term "Indos" to refer to the Indus River and the surrounding region, which is where Sindhi is spoken. The historical spelling "Sind" (from the Perso-Arabic سند) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in the Sindh Assembly , and is now spelt "Sindh." Hence, the term "Sindhi" was also introduced to replace "Sindi". In
750-542: The 2017 Census of Pakistan , Hindus constituted about 8.7% of the total population of Sindh province, roughly around 4.2 million people. Most of them live in urban areas such as Karachi , Hyderabad , Sukkur and Mirpur Khas . Hyderabad is currently the largest centre of Sindhi Hindus in Pakistan, with 100,000–150,000 living there. The ratio of Hindus in Sindh was higher before the Partition of India in 1947. Prior to
825-602: The Bahawalpur region of Punjab , the Kutch region of Gujarat and Jaisalmer and Barmer regions of Rajasthan , India. There are many Sindhi-Hindus who migrated to India after partition in 1947. Sindhis in Pakistan have their own province, Sindh, It also has the largest population of Hindus in Pakistan, with 93% of Pakistani Hindus residing in Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were an economically prosperous community in urban Sindh before partition, but due to fear of persecution on
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#1732765144942900-436: The Bahawalpur region of Punjab and the Kutch region of Gujarat . Having been isolated throughout history, unlike its neighbours, Sindhi culture has preserved its uniqueness. After the partition of British India in 1947, many Sindhi Hindus and Sindhi Sikhs migrated to the newly independent Dominion of India and other parts of the world; some Sindhis fled and formed diasporas settling in countries such as England and
975-646: The Balochi language , the traditional terms for Sindhis are Jadgal and Jamote . They are derived from the prefix Jatt referring to the tribe by that name, and the suffix gal meaning "speech". Thus, it signifies someone who speaks the language of the Jatts, i.e. a Jatt. The term Jatt historically encompassed Sindhis and Punjabis , and was frequently used by the British for Sindhis in their census records. Sindh has been an ethnic historical region isolated from
1050-567: The British at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubbo . The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as the princely state of Khairpur, whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into West Pakistan in 1955. Baloch migrations in
1125-591: The Chach Nama , after the Arabs scaled Debal's walls, the besieged denizens opened the gates and pleaded for mercy but Qasim stated he had no orders to spare anyone. The historian al-Baladhuri stated that after conquest of Debal, Qasim kept slaughtering its inhabitants for three days. The custodians of the Buddhist stupa were killed and the temple was destroyed; 700 women taking shelter there were enslaved. Qasim gave
1200-803: The Crown Colony of Burma . In 1947, the last Act of the Crown was passed. The act dissolved the Indian Empire, the Imperial Legislative Council and the Chamber of Princes and the Union of India was consequently established from 9 former Indian provinces ( East Punjab , United Provinces , Central Provinces , Madras , Bombay , Bihar , Orissa , West Bengal and Assam ) and 562 former Indian states. Between 1947 and 1950,
1275-443: The Partition of India , around 73% of the population of Sindh was Muslim with almost 26% of the remaining being Hindu. Hindus in Sindh were concentrated in the urban areas before the Partition of India in 1947, during which most migrated to modern-day India according to Ahmad Hassan Dani . In the urban centres of Sindh, Hindus formed the majority of the population before the partition. The cities and towns of Sindh were dominated by
1350-656: The Rashidun army during the early Muslim conquests , but the region did not come under Muslim rule until the Arab invasion of Sind occurred under the Umayyad Caliphate , headed by Muhammad ibn Qasim in 712 CE. Afterwards, Sindh was ruled by a series of dynasties including the Habbaris , Soomras , Sammas , Arghuns and Tarkhans . The Mughal empire conquered Sindh in 1591 and organized it as Subah of Thatta ,
1425-642: The Sahel , developed with the spread of Islam . To a certain degree the style and usage tends to follow those of the Maghreb (for instance the position of the dots in the letters fāʼ and qāf ). Additional diacritics have come into use to facilitate the writing of sounds not represented in the Arabic language. The term ʻAjamī , which comes from the Arabic root for "foreign", has been applied to Arabic-based orthographies of African languages. Today Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and China are
1500-768: The Soomro —descendants of the Soomra dynasty , who ruled Sindh during 970–1351 C.E.—and the Samma —descendants of the Samma dynasty, who ruled Sindh during 1351–1521 CE. These tribes belong to the same bloodline. Among other Sindhi Sammat and Sindhi Rajputs are the Bhuttos , Kambohs , Bhattis , Bhanbhros, Mahendros, Buriros, Bhachos, Chohans, Lakha, Sahetas, Lohanas , Mohano , Dahars , Indhar , Chhachhar, Chachar , Dhareja, Rathores , Dakhan, Langah , Junejo , Mahars , etc. One of
1575-853: The Syriac alphabet , which are both derived from the Aramaic alphabet , which, in turn, descended from the Phoenician alphabet . The Phoenician script also gave rise to the Greek alphabet (and, therefore, both the Cyrillic alphabet and the Latin alphabet used in America and most European countries.). In the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, northern Arab tribes emigrated and founded a kingdom centred around Petra , Jordan . These people (now named Nabataeans from
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#17327651449421650-559: The United States . Pakistani Sindhis are predominantly Muslim , with smaller minorities of Christians , Sikhs , and Hindus . The latter are concentrated mostly in the eastern Sindh . Indian Sindhis are predominantly Hindu with smaller Muslim, Christian, Sikh, and Jain minorities. Despite being geographically separated, Sindhis still maintain strong ties to each other and share similar cultural values and practices. Europe North America Oceania The name Sindhi
1725-426: The 16th century, it was also used for some Spanish texts, and—prior to the script reform in 1928 —it was the writing system of Turkish . The script is written from right to left in a cursive style, in which most of the letters are written in slightly different forms according to whether they stand alone or are joined to a following or preceding letter. The script does not have capital letters . In most cases,
1800-519: The Arab conquest, mainly due to conversion of almost all of the Buddhist population of Sindh to Islam, Hinduism managed to survive as a significant minority through Muslim rule until before the partition of India. Derryl Maclean explains what he calls "the persistence of Hinduism" on the basis of "the radical dissimilarity between the socio-economic bases of Hinduism and Buddhism in Sind": Buddhism in this region
1875-438: The Arabic alphabet use the same base shapes. Most additional letters in languages that use alphabets based on the Arabic alphabet are built by adding (or removing) diacritics to existing Arabic letters. Some stylistic variants in Arabic have distinct meanings in other languages. For example, variant forms of kāf ك ک ڪ are used in some languages and sometimes have specific usages. In Urdu and some neighbouring languages,
1950-520: The Arabic script is used to write Serbo-Croatian , Sorani , Kashmiri , Mandarin Chinese , or Uyghur , vowels are mandatory. The Arabic script can, therefore, be used as a true alphabet as well as an abjad , although it is often strongly, if erroneously, connected to the latter due to it being originally used only for Arabic. Use of the Arabic script in West African languages, especially in
2025-630: The Arabic script were incorporated among the assortment of scripts used for writing native languages. In the 20th century, the Arabic script was generally replaced by the Latin alphabet in the Balkans , parts of Sub-Saharan Africa , and Southeast Asia , while in the Soviet Union , after a brief period of Latinisation , use of Cyrillic was mandated. Turkey changed to the Latin alphabet in 1928 as part of an internal Westernizing revolution. After
2100-459: The Aramaic alphabet, which continued to evolve; it separated into two forms: one intended for inscriptions (known as "monumental Nabataean") and the other, more cursive and hurriedly written and with joined letters, for writing on papyrus . This cursive form influenced the monumental form more and more and gradually changed into the Arabic alphabet. The Arabic script has been adapted for use in
2175-474: The Government of India introduced legislation to merge the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli into a single union territory to be known as Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu , effective from 26 January 2020. Ladakh UT The Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any state between
2250-638: The Great's invasion , Sindh became part of the Mauryan Empire . After its decline, Indo-Greeks , Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthians ruled in Sindh. Sindh is sometimes referred to as the Bab-ul Islam ( transl. 'Gateway of Islam'), as it was one of the first regions of the Indian subcontinent to come under Islamic rule . Parts of the modern-day province were intermittently subject to raids by
2325-454: The Hindus. In 1941, Hindus were 64% of the total urban population. According to the 1941 Census of India , Hindus formed around 74% of the population of Hyderabad , 70% of Sukkur , 65% of Shikarpur and about half of Karachi . By the 1951 Census of Pakistan , all of these cities had virtually been emptied of their Hindu population as a result of the partition. Hindus were also spread over
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2400-491: The Indian Union and the state's monarchy was abolished. In 1987, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became states on 20 February, followed by Goa on 30 May, while erstwhile union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu 's northern exclaves Damão and Diu became a separate union territory as Daman and Diu . In November 2000, three new states were created, namely: Pondicherry was renamed Puducherry in 2007 and Orissa
2475-661: The Islamic conquest between the 7th and 10th centuries CE Alexander the Great marched through Punjab and Sindh, down the Indus river, after his conquest of the Persian Empire. The Ror dynasty was a power from the Indian subcontinent that ruled modern-day Sindh and Northwest India from 450 BCE to 489 CE. Sindh was one of the earliest regions to be conquered by the Arabs and influenced by Islam after 720 CE. Before this period, it
2550-692: The Kalhoras in 1783 and four branches of the dynasty were established. One ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad , another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur , a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas , and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan . They were ethnically Baloch , and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the Durrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them. They ruled from 1783 until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by
2625-583: The Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend which highlights the strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried on Makli Hill near Thatta. The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the 16th century two Sufi tareeqat (orders)—Qadria and Naqshbandia—were introduced in Sindh. Sufism continues to play an important role in
2700-456: The addition of new letters and other symbols. Such languages still using it are: Persian ( Farsi and Dari ), Urdu , Uyghur , Kurdish , Pashto , Punjabi ( Shahmukhi ), Sindhi , Azerbaijani (Torki in Iran), Malay ( Jawi ), Javanese and Indonesian ( Pegon ), Balti , Balochi , Luri , Kashmiri , Cham (Akhar Srak), Rohingya , Somali , Mandinka , and Mooré , among others. Until
2775-1160: The basis of religion and after large scale arrival of Muslim refugees from India, they migrated to India after partition. They had a hard time in India developing their economic status with no native homeland to claim, they chose to live in states that had similarity with Sindhi culture. Despite all of that they were successful in establishing themselves as one of India's richest communities, especially through business and trade. Sindhis have distinguished themselves in India, from famous actors such as Ranveer Singh and Jimmi Harkishin to veteran politicians such as L. K. Advani , all of whom had families that came from Sindh. In India as per 2011 census, Sindhis have an estimated population of 2,770,000. Unlike Sindhis in Pakistan, Indian Sindhis are scattered throughout India in states such as Gujarat , Maharashtra and Rajasthan . Today many Sindhis live outside Pakistan and India, particularly in Afghanistan , where there are an estimated 25,000 of them, largely engaged in merchant trade . In addition, during
2850-409: The civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence. A gradual drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east. For several centuries in the first millennium BCE and in
2925-787: The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, many of the Turkic languages of the ex-USSR attempted to follow Turkey's lead and convert to a Turkish-style Latin alphabet. However, renewed use of the Arabic alphabet has occurred to a limited extent in Tajikistan , whose language's close resemblance to Persian allows direct use of publications from Afghanistan and Iran. As of Unicode 15.1, the following ranges encode Arabic characters: Used to represent / ɡ / in Morocco and in many dialects of Algerian . Most languages that use alphabets based on
3000-536: The consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to exploit Sindh's economic potential. The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into the Bombay Presidency . The distance from the provincial capital, Bombay , led to grievances that Sindh
3075-610: The crackdown on separatist groups by Pervez Musharraf an estimated 400-500 Sindhi separatists, along with Balochis , fled to Afghanistan. Another group of Sindhis migrated to the island of Ceylon , which is the now modern day country of Sri Lanka , roughly two centuries ago to engage in business and trade. They came via migration from Hyderabad city of Sindh. However, after partition this trend increased as Sindhi Hindus left their home province. Today they are mainly concentrated around Colombo . Rich Sindhi communities can also be found in both Hong Kong and Singapore . Sindh
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3150-476: The daily lives of Sindhis. Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage of Hindus overall, which accounts 8.7% of the population, roughly around 4.2 million people, and 13.3% of the province's rural population as per 2017 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include the scheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas), and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under
3225-501: The defunct Bengal Presidency for judicial and legal purposes. Agra was separated in 1878 and merged with Oudh . The Bengal Presidency was re-established in 1912 as a governorship. All these provinces had their own legislatures established by the Indian Councils Acts, and high courts established by Indian High Courts Acts. Laws passed by these legislatures needed the dual assent of the governor or lieutenant-governor of
3300-616: The first five centuries of the first millennium CE, the western portions of Sindh, the regions on the western flank of the Indus river, were intermittently under Persian, Greek and Kushan rule, first during the Achaemenid dynasty (500–300 BCE) during which it made up part of the easternmost satrapies, then, by Alexander the Great, followed by the Indo-Greeks and still later under the Indo-Sassanids , as well as Kushans , before
3375-622: The first-level imperial division. Sindh again became independent under the Kalhora dynasty . The British conquered Sindh in 1843 after their victory in the Battle of Hyderabad over the Talpur dynasty . Sindh became a separate province in 1936, and after independence became part of Pakistan. Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization . There are remnants of ancient cities and structures, with
3450-587: The former French enclaves of Pondichéry , Karikal , Yanaon and Mahé , was transferred to India. This became a union territory in 1962. Also in 1954, pro-India forces liberated the Portuguese-held enclaves of Dadrá and Nagar Aveli , declaring the short-lived de facto state of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli . In 1961, India annexed it as the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli . The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 reorganised
3525-579: The letter Hā has diverged into two forms ھ dō-čašmī hē and ہ ہـ ـہـ ـہ gōl hē , while a variant form of ي yā referred to as baṛī yē ے is used at the end of some words. States and union territories of India India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories , for a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into 806 districts and smaller administrative divisions . The states of India are self-governing administrative divisions, each having
3600-470: The letters transcribe consonants , or consonants and a few vowels, so most Arabic alphabets are abjads , with the versions used for some languages, such as Kurdish dialect of Sorani , Uyghur , Mandarin , and Bosniak , being alphabets . It is the basis for the tradition of Arabic calligraphy . The Arabic alphabet is derived either from the Nabataean alphabet or (less widely believed) directly from
3675-674: The main Hindu category. Although Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of the region's population. Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. The Shri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh. Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have
3750-407: The main non-Arabic speaking states using the Arabic alphabet to write one or more official national languages, including Azerbaijani , Baluchi , Brahui , Persian , Pashto , Central Kurdish , Urdu , Sindhi , Kashmiri , Punjabi and Uyghur . An Arabic alphabet is currently used for the following languages: With the establishment of Muslim rule in the subcontinent , one or more forms of
3825-573: The name of one of the tribes, Nabatu) spoke Nabataean Arabic , a dialect of the Arabic language. In the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE, the first known records of the Nabataean alphabet were written in the Aramaic language (which was the language of communication and trade), but included some Arabic language features: the Nabataeans did not write the language which they spoke. They wrote in a form of
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#17327651449423900-405: The oldest Sindhi tribes is the Charan . The Sindhi-Sipahi of Rajasthan and the Sandhai Muslims of Gujarat are communities of Sindhi Rajputs settled in India. Closely related to the Sindhi Rajputs are the Sindhi Jats , who are found mainly in the Indus delta region. However, tribes are of little importance in Sindh as compared to in Punjab and Balochistan. Identity in Sindh is mostly based on
3975-472: The province and the governor-general of India , who functioned as the representative of the Emperor . In addition to these, there were certain territories ruled directly by the Government of India through nominated chief commissioners. These were former independent states annexed to India and since ruled directly by the Supreme Government. A vast majority of the Indian states in the late nineteenth century were, in terms of imperial divisions, organised within
4050-404: The provinces with only territories under direct Crown rule. The latter years of the Indian Empire saw the enactment of the last Government of India Act by the Crown. This act granted full autonomy to Indian provinces. Provincial laws no longer needed the assent of the governor-general. This act created the office of a Premier in each province, who functioned as the new head of government and
4125-572: The provinces. However a good number of states were organised into imperial structures called agencies, or residencies. An Agent to the Governor-General (AGG) functioned as the Emperor's representative to all the states in the agency. In 1919, the fourth Government of India was enacted by the Crown. This saw many major changes. The legislatures of the provinces were made elected ones rather than nominated ones. Some provinces were given bicameral legislatures . All provinces were elevated to governorships and all lieutenant governors were made governors. Burma
4200-466: The region between 14th and 18th centuries and many Baloch dynasties saw a high Iranic mixture into Sindhis. The British East India Company conquered Sindh in 1843. General Charles Napier is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely "Peccavi" – or "I have sinned" ( Latin ), which was later turned into a pun known as "Forgive me for I have Sindh". The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh:
4275-531: The representative of the Emperor to that province and head of government of the directly ruled territories in the province. The governor or lieutenant-governor also served as the Emperor's representative to the constituent states of the province. The first three of the lieutenant-governorships were territories annexed to India from other powers and temporarily governed by the erstwhile Bengal Presidency, before being made into their own separate provinces. Agra and Bengal were still considered de jure parts of
4350-422: The rest of India; unlike its neighbors Sindh did not experience violent invasions. Boundaries of various Kingdoms and rulers in Sindh were defined on ethnic lines. Throughout history the geographical definition for Sindh referred to the south of Indus and its neighboring regions. Besides Sindh the historical homeland of Sindhis are regions like Kacchi Plain , the Lasbela and Makran regions in Balochistan ,
4425-404: The rural areas of Sindh province. Thari (a dialect of Sindhi) is spoken in Sindh in Pakistan and Rajasthan in India. Arabic script Co-official script in: Official script at regional level in: The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic ( Arabic alphabet ) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in
4500-419: The specific letter used varies from language to language. These modifications tend to fall into groups: Indian and Turkic languages written in the Arabic script tend to use the Persian modified letters , whereas the languages of Indonesia tend to imitate those of Jawi . The modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the Perso-Arabic script by scholars. When
4575-416: The states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states. As a result of this act: Bombay State was split into the linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. The former Union Territory of Nagaland achieved statehood on 1 December 1963. The Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and
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#17327651449424650-552: The territories of the princely states were politically integrated into the new Indian Union . Most were merged into existing provinces. Others were organised into new provinces and states , such as Rajasthan , Himachal Pradesh , Malwa Union , Baghelkhand and Bundelkhand States Union , and Patiala and East Punjab States Union , made up of multiple princely states. A few, including Mysore , Hyderabad , Bhopal , and Bilaspur , became separate states. The new Constitution of India , which came into force on 26 January 1950, made India
4725-415: The transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh . The act designated Chandigarh as a union territory and the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana. Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1969. The north-eastern states of Manipur , Meghalaya and Tripura were formed on 21 January 1972. Mysore State was renamed Karnataka in 1973. On 16 May 1975, Sikkim became the 22nd state of
4800-425: The world (after the Latin script ), the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it, and the third-most by number of users (after the Latin and Chinese scripts ). The script was first used to write texts in Arabic, most notably the Quran , the holy book of Islam . With the religion's spread , it came to be used as the primary script for many language families, leading to
4875-676: Was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration. The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their urban planning , baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and metallurgy . Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and
4950-449: Was given a special status and made an autonomous province. The Chamber of Princes was established by Emperor George V in 1920. One of the major consequences of this was the creation of many more agencies from the states of the provinces, thus granting them direct relations with the Emperor instead of with the Governors. This saw the separation of all the states from the provinces and addition to before-mentioned agencies. This left all
5025-605: Was heavily Hindu and Buddhist . After 632 CE., it was part of the Islamic empires of the Abbasids and Umayyids . Habbari, Soomra , Samma , Kalhora dynasties ruled Sindh. After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , the Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond Persia . An initial expedition in the region, launched because of the Sindhi pirate attacks on Arabs in 711–12, failed. In 712, when Mohammed Bin Qasim invaded Sindh with 8000 cavalry while also receiving reinforcements, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf instructed him not to spare anyone in Debal. According to
5100-434: Was made up of 584 constituent states and the directly ruled territories of the Crown . The entire empire was divided into provinces and agencies. A province consisted of territory under the direct rule of the Emperor of India (who was also the King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions ) and a few minor states, ruled by Indian princes under the suzerainty of the Emperor. A Governor or Lieutenant-Governor acted as
5175-416: Was mainly urban and mercantile while Hinduism was rural and non-mercantile, thus the Arabs, themselves urban and mercantile, attracted and converted the Buddhist classes, but for the rural and non-mercantile parts, only interested by the taxes, they promoted a more decentralized authority and appointed Brahmins for the task, who often just continued the roles they had in the previous Hindu rule. According to
5250-473: Was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab. In 1947, violence did not constitute a major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. This was in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part because Sindh
5325-471: Was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between the local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval and Okha. The two main tribes of Sindh are
5400-593: Was renamed Odisha in 2011. Telangana was created on 2 June 2014 from ten former districts of north-western Andhra Pradesh . In August 2019, the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 , which contains provisions to reorganise the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories; Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh , effective from 31 October 2019. Later that year in November,
5475-399: Was responsible to the provincial legislature. Bengal, Madras and Bombay which had been till now styled Presidencies, were now officially styled as provinces. The provinces of Orissa and Sind were created from Bihar and Bombay respectively. The Province of Burma which had previously functioned as an autonomous province of India was now separated from the Indian Empire, and established as
5550-703: Was the site of one of the Cradle of civilizations , the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilisation that flourished from about 3000 BCE. The Indo-Aryan tribes of Sindh gave rise to the Iron Age vedic civilization , which lasted until 500 BCE. During this era, the Vedas were composed. In 518 BCE, the Achaemenid empire conquered Indus valley and established Hindush satrapy in Sindh. Following Alexander
5625-608: Was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenous Kalhora dynasty, consolidating their rule until the mid-18th century, when the Persian sacking of the Mughal throne in Delhi allowed them to grab the rest of Sindh. It is during this the era that the famous Sindhi Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai composed his classic Sindhi text Shah Jo Risalo The Talpur dynasty (Sindhi: ٽالپردور) succeeded
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