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90-575: Josephus wrote all of his surviving works after his establishment in Rome (c. 71 AD) under the patronage of the Flavian Emperor Vespasian . As is common with ancient texts, however, there are no surviving extant manuscripts of Josephus' works that can be dated before the 11th century, and the oldest of these are all Greek minuscules, copied by Christian monks. (Jews did not preserve the writings of Josephus because they considered him to be

180-470: A divine power that could work miracles . The praefectus Aegypti was Tiberius Julius Alexander , who had been governor since Nero's reign. He proclaimed Vespasian emperor at Alexandria on 1 July 69 AD. The prefect was himself of Hellenized Jewish descent and related to Philo of Alexandria . The importance of the Egyptian grain harvest (Latin: claustra annonae , lit.   'key to

270-501: A nit-picking classicist" and only the "technical research into languages and families". In The Space Trilogy by C. S. Lewis , the main character, Elwin Ransom, is a philologist – as was Lewis' close friend J. R. R. Tolkien . Dr. Edward Morbius, one of the main characters in the science fiction film Forbidden Planet , is a philologist. Philip, the main character of Christopher Hampton 's 'bourgeois comedy' The Philanthropist ,

360-604: A number of omens and oracles that reinforced this belief. Although Vespasian and Titus resolved to challenge for the Principate in February 69, they made no move until later in the year. Throughout the early months of 69, Vespasian convened frequently with the Eastern generals. Gaius Licinius Mucianus was a notable ally. Governor of Syria and commander of three legions, Mucianus also held political connections to many of

450-470: A pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings. Numerous other philosophers and writers had their works seized, destroyed and denounced for being deemed too critical of Vespasian's reign, some even posthumously. Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian's reign is a mystery. Historians report that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome. Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after

540-473: A reconstructed text accompanied by a " critical apparatus ", i.e., footnotes that listed the various manuscript variants available, enabling scholars to gain insight into the entire manuscript tradition and argue about the variants. A related study method known as higher criticism studies the authorship, date, and provenance of text to place such text in a historical context. As these philological issues are often inseparable from issues of interpretation, there

630-531: A script used in the ancient Aegean, was deciphered in 1952 by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick , who demonstrated that it recorded an early form of Greek, now known as Mycenaean Greek . Linear A , the writing system that records the still-unknown language of the Minoans , resists deciphering, despite many attempts. Work continues on scripts such as the Maya , with great progress since the initial breakthroughs of

720-690: A traitor.) Of the about 120 extant Greek manuscripts of Josephus, 33 predate the 14th century. According to Van Voorst, Creed, and a narrow group of researchers, the references to Jesus by Josephus found in Book 18 and Book 20 of the Antiquities of the Jews do not appear in any other versions of Josephus' The Jewish War except for a Slavonic version of the Testimonium Flavianum (at times called Testimonium Slavonium ) which surfaced in

810-411: A village north-east of Rome called Falacrinae . His family was relatively undistinguished and lacking in pedigree. Vespasian was the son of Titus Flavius Sabinus , a Roman moneylender, debt collector, and tax collector. His mother, Vespasia Polla , also belonged to the equestrian order in society, with her father rising to the rank of prefect of the camp and her brother becoming a Senator . He

900-401: A year of civil wars . Galba was murdered by supporters of Otho , who was defeated by Vitellius . Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found

990-588: Is a professor of philology in an English university town . Moritz-Maria von Igelfeld , the main character in Alexander McCall Smith 's 1997 comic novel Portuguese Irregular Verbs is a philologist, educated at Cambridge. The main character in the Academy Award Nominee for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012, Footnote , is a Hebrew philologist, and a significant part of the film deals with his work. The main character of

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1080-462: Is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussure 's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis . While the contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and the emphasis of Noam Chomsky on syntax , research in historical linguistics often relies on philological materials and findings. The term philology is derived from the Greek φιλολογία ( philología ), from

1170-524: Is known as a philologist . In older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics . Classical philology studies classical languages . Classical philology principally originated from the Library of Pergamum and the Library of Alexandria around the fourth century BC, continued by Greeks and Romans throughout the Roman and Byzantine Empire . It

1260-543: Is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned against Vespasian is not known. Agricola was appointed to the command of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix , stationed in Britain, in place of Marcus Roscius Coelius , who had stirred up a mutiny against the governor, Marcus Vettius Bolanus . Britain had revolted during

1350-516: Is no clear-cut boundary between philology and hermeneutics . When text has a significant political or religious influence (such as the reconstruction of Biblical texts), scholars have difficulty reaching objective conclusions. Some scholars avoid all critical methods of textual philology, especially in historical linguistics, where it is important to study the actual recorded materials. The movement known as new philology has rejected textual criticism because it injects editorial interpretations into

1440-460: Is often credited with restoring political stability to Rome following the chaotic reigns of his predecessors. After he died in 79, he was succeeded by his eldest son Titus, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to be succeeded by his natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian (born Titus Flavius Vespasianus, pronounced [ˈt̪ɪt̪ʊs ˈfɫaːwijʊs wɛs.pasiˈjaːnʊs] ) was born in

1530-559: Is remembered by Josephus (writing as a Roman citizen), in his Antiquities of the Jews , as a fair and humane official, in contrast with the notorious Herod Agrippa II whom Josephus goes to great lengths to demonize. While under the emperor's patronage, Josephus wrote that after the Roman Legio X Fretensis , accompanied by Vespasian, destroyed Jericho on 21 June 68, Vespasian took a group of Jews who could not swim (possibly Essenes from Qumran ), fettered them, and threw them into

1620-440: Is the study of language in oral and written historical sources . It is the intersection of textual criticism , literary criticism , history , and linguistics with strong ties to etymology . Philology is also defined as the study of literary texts and oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study

1710-417: Is treated amongst other scholars, as noted by both the philologists R.D Fulk and Leonard Neidorf who have been quoted saying "This field "philology's commitment to falsification renders it "at odds with what many literary scholars believe because the purpose of philology is to narrow the range of possible interpretations rather than to treat all reasonable ones as equal". This use of falsification can be seen in

1800-526: The cursus honorum , holding an important military command in the Danube . In preparation for a praetorship , Vespasian needed two periods of service in the minor magistracies , one military and the other public. Vespasian served in the military in Thracia for about three years. On his return to Rome in about 30 AD, he obtained a post in the vigintivirate , the minor magistracies, most probably in one of

1890-656: The Dead Sea to test the sea's legendary buoyancy . Indeed, the captives bobbed up to the surface after being thrown in the water from the boats. At the conclusion of the Jewish war, Josephus discussed a prophecy from sacred scripture that about the time when Jerusalem and the Second Temple would be taken, a man from their own nation would become "governor of the habitable earth", as in the Messiah . Josephus interpreted

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1980-797: The Middle French philologie , in the sense of 'love of literature'. The adjective φιλόλογος ( philólogos ) meant 'fond of discussion or argument, talkative', in Hellenistic Greek , also implying an excessive (" sophistic ") preference of argument over the love of true wisdom, φιλόσοφος ( philósophos ). As an allegory of literary erudition, philologia appears in fifth-century postclassical literature ( Martianus Capella , De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii ), an idea revived in Late Medieval literature ( Chaucer , Lydgate ). The meaning of "love of learning and literature"

2070-529: The Nile Valley . By contrast, the Jewish temple at Leontopolis was sacked in 73. In January 70, an uprising occurred in Gaul and Germany, known as the second Batavian Rebellion . This rebellion was headed by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus . Sabinus, claiming he was descended from Julius Caesar , declared himself Emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and absorbed two Roman legions before it

2160-542: The Slavonic Josephus "includes so many sensationalized accretions" that most modern scholars consider it as a highly colored translation and paraphrase, and do not consider it to be true to the original Aramaic. The Slavonic Josephus was defended in 1926 as authentic by Robert Eisler and was later supported by George Williamson. Robert Van Voorst states that apart from Eisler's controversial book and Williamson statements, "no strong defense has been made" for

2250-518: The Emperor's recitals on the lyre , and found himself in the political wilderness. In 66 AD, Vespasian was appointed to suppress the Jewish revolt underway in Judea . The fighting there had killed the previous governor and routed Cestius Gallus , the governor of Syria , when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry squadrons and ten auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under

2340-491: The Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed. Additionally, Vespasian made significant attempts to control public perception of his rule. We know from Suetonius that the "unexpected and still quite new emperor was lacking auctoritas [English: backing, support ] and a certain maiestas [English: majesty ]". Many modern historians note

2430-504: The Slavonic Josephus dates to 1463. The translation itself, however, is at least a century older than that. Some scholars have associated it with the very first Slavic school of translators active in the ninth and tenth centuries. Others have associated it with the Jewish community of Lvov in the fourteenth century. Virtually any date between those two extremes is possible. The text is generally associated with Kievan Rus' on

2520-619: The Slavonic version includes statements which Josephus could have hardly written and that recent scholarly opinion dismisses the Slavonic Josephus as less than authentic, but the 11th-century creation as an ideological struggle against the Khazars . Van Voorst states that the Slavonic Josephus at times focuses on blaming Pilate and the Jews, to the point of suggesting that the Jews and not the Romans crucified Jesus. Louis Feldman states that

2610-599: The ancient languages of the Near East progressed rapidly. In the mid-19th century, Henry Rawlinson and others deciphered the Behistun Inscription , which records the same text in Old Persian , Elamite , and Akkadian , using a variation of cuneiform for each language. The elucidation of cuneiform led to the decipherment of Sumerian . Hittite was deciphered in 1915 by Bedřich Hrozný . Linear B ,

2700-474: The authenticity of the Slavonic Josephus . Henry Leeming states that Eisler at times used insufficiently substantiated material which were then discredited, adding that Eisler's philological attempts to reverse translate from Old Russian to Greek were shown to be "extremely flimsy". Van Voorst states that the contents of the passages in the Slavonic Josephus show that "they are Christian compositions and that they do not provide an authentic textual alternative to

2790-588: The circle of courtiers and servants around the Emperor, may have contributed to his success. Upon the accession of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed legate of Legio II Augusta , stationed in Germania , thanks to the influence of the Imperial freedman Narcissus . In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of Britain , and he distinguished himself under

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2880-679: The civil war. He added the temple of Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius. In 75, he erected a colossal statue of Apollo , begun under Nero , and he dedicated a stage of the theatre of Marcellus. He also began construction of the Colosseum , using funds from the spoils of the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem . Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with "constant conspiracies" against him. Only one conspiracy

2970-483: The command of Vespasian while his elder son, Titus, arrived from Alexandria with another. During this time he became the patron of Flavius Josephus , a Jewish resistance leader captured at the Siege of Yodfat , who would later write his people's history in Greek. Ultimately, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans destroyed many towns in re-establishing control over Judea; they also took Jerusalem in 70. Vespasian

3060-452: The country around Reate , where he spent every summer; however, his illness worsened and he developed severe diarrhea . With the feeling of death overwhelming him on his deathbed, he incited: "Vae, puto deus fio." ("Dear me, I think I'm becoming a god"). Then, according to Suetonius ' The Twelve Caesars : Taken on a sudden with such an attack of diarrhoea that he all but swooned, he said: "An emperor ought to die standing," and while he

3150-483: The debate surrounding the etymology of the Old English character Unferth from the heroic epic poem Beowulf . James Turner further disagrees with how the use of the term is dismissed in the academic world, stating that due to its branding as a "simpleminded approach to their subject" the term has become unknown to college-educated students, furthering the stereotypes of "scrutiny of ancient Greek or Roman texts of

3240-467: The emperor on 1 July 69. In his bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus , the governor of Syria , and Primus , a general in Pannonia , leaving his son Titus to command the besieging forces at Jerusalem . Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian took control of Egypt. On 20 December 69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian

3330-535: The famous decipherment and translation of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, some individuals attempted to decipher the writing systems of the Ancient Near East and Aegean . In the case of Old Persian and Mycenaean Greek , decipherment yielded older records of languages already known from slightly more recent traditions ( Middle Persian and Alphabetic Greek ). Work on

3420-559: The first English translation of Josephus's writings based on the Latin text made in 1602 by Thomas Lodge . The existence of the documents that led to the discovery of the Slavonic Josephus was first brought to light by A. N. Popov in Russia in 1866. In 1879 Izmail Sreznevsky pointed out that the language used was not Bulgarian or Serbian, but comparable to the Russian chronicles. At about

3510-814: The first of his family to do so. Vespasian's renown came from his military success; he was legate of Legio II Augusta during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 and subjugated Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of 66. While Vespasian was fighting against a Jewish rebellion , emperor Nero committed suicide and plunged Rome into a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho perished in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in April 69. The Roman legions of Roman Egypt and Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander,

3600-624: The grain supply') to Rome helped Vespasian assert control over the whole empire. Vespasian was the first emperor (and pharaoh ) since Augustus to appear in Egypt. At the hippodrome of Alexandria he was hailed as pharaoh ; recalling the welcome of Alexander the Great at the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon of the Siwa Oasis , Vespasian was proclaimed the son of the creator-deity Amun (Zeus-Ammon), in

3690-484: The grounds that it has proto-Russian features. It was widely copied and survives in some 33 manuscripts. In some it is interwoven with the chronicles of the Byzantine historians John Malalas and George Hamartolos to form a single universal history . Grigorije Vasilije was a Serbian Orthodox monk and scribe who translated The Jewish War from Old Church Slavonic to Serbian in the sixteenth century. All predate

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3780-617: The hostile Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes, and captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hill forts , including Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset ). He also invaded Vectis (now the Isle of Wight ), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at Isca Dumnoniorum ( Exeter ). During this time he injured himself and had not fully recovered until he went to Egypt. These successes earned him triumphal regalia ( ornamenta triumphalia ) on his return to Rome. His success as

3870-509: The increased amount of propaganda that appeared during Vespasian's reign. A component of the propaganda was the theology of victory , which legitimized the right to rule through successful conquest. This revolved around Vespasian's victory in Judea. Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the empire. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace. The word vindex

3960-555: The leadership of Marcus Antonius Primus . They defeated Vitellius' army (which had awaited him in Mevania ) at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome. Vitellius hastily arranged a peace with Antonius, but the Emperor's Praetorian Guard forced him to retain his seat. After furious fighting, Antonius' army entered Rome. In the resulting confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian's brother Sabinus

4050-426: The legate of a legion earned him a consulship in 51, after which he retired from public life, having incurred the enmity of Claudius ' wife, Agrippina , who was the most powerful and influential figure in her husband's reign. He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa Province . According to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious" but according to Suetonius ( Vesp. 4), he

4140-514: The main Testimonium Flavianum ." In 1948 Solomon Zeitlin argued that the Slavonic Josephus was composed for the purpose of giving a Christian version of Josephus in Greek. Steven B. Bowman states that the consideration of the Slavonic Josephus should be removed from the scholarly discussions of the first century, for it only pertains to the Macedonian elements of the 10th and 11th centuries. The Cambridge History of Judaism states that

4230-582: The most powerful Roman military commanders from Illyricum to Britannia by virtue of his service to the famous Neronian general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo . In May 69, Mucianus formally implored Vespasian to challenge Vitellius. His appeal was followed by Vespasian's official proclamation as Emperor in early July. Under instructions from the prefect Tiberius Alexander, the legions at Alexandria took an oath of loyalty to Vespasian on 1 July. They were swiftly followed by Vespasian's Judaean legions on 3 July and thereafter by Mucianus' Syrian legions on 15 July. Vitellius ,

4320-577: The occupant of the throne, had the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland . But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia , Pannonia , and Illyricum soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of half of the Roman world. While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its grain supply , his troops entered Italy from the northeast under

4410-515: The original principles of textual criticism have been improved and applied to other widely distributed texts such as the Bible . Scholars have tried to reconstruct the original readings of the Bible from the manuscript variants. This method was applied to classical studies and medieval texts as a way to reconstruct the author's original work. The method produced so-called "critical editions", which provided

4500-524: The origins of older texts. Philology also includes the study of texts and their history. It includes elements of textual criticism , trying to reconstruct an author's original text based on variant copies of manuscripts. This branch of research arose among ancient scholars in the Greek-speaking world of the 4th century BC, who desired to establish a standard text of popular authors for both sound interpretation and secure transmission. Since that time,

4590-503: The overall command of Aulus Plautius . After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames , he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern counties of Hampshire , Wiltshire , Dorset , Somerset , Devon and Cornwall with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset. Vespasian marched from Noviomagus Reginorum ( Chichester ) to subdue

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4680-621: The passage of the Lex de imperio Vespasiani ; the Egyptians had declared him emperor in the summer. In the short-term, administration of the empire was given to Mucianus , who was aided by Vespasian's son, Domitian . Mucianus started off Vespasian's rule with tax reform that was to restore the empire's finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible. Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased

4770-601: The period such as Tacitus , Suetonius and Josephus speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors who came before him. Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and saviour. Meanwhile, Pliny the Elder dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus ,

4860-615: The phonetic approach championed by Yuri Knorozov and others in the 1950s. Since the late 20th century, the Maya code has been almost completely deciphered, and the Mayan languages are among the most documented and studied in Mesoamerica . The code is described as a logosyllabic style of writing. In English-speaking countries, usage of the term "philology" to describe work on languages and works of literature, which had become synonymous with

4950-421: The posts in charge of street cleaning. His early performance was so unsuccessful that Emperor Caligula reportedly stuffed handfuls of muck down his toga to correct the uncleaned Roman streets, formally his responsibility. During the period of the ascendancy of Sejanus , there is no record of Vespasian engaging in any significant political activity. After completion of a term in the vigintivirate, Vespasian

5040-632: The practices of German scholars, was abandoned as a consequence of anti-German feelings following World War I . Most continental European countries still maintain the term to designate departments, colleges, position titles, and journals. J. R. R. Tolkien opposed the nationalist reaction against philological practices, claiming that "the philological instinct" was "universal as is the use of language". In British English usage, and British academia, philology remains largely synonymous with "historical linguistics", while in US English , and US academia,

5130-400: The prophecy as denoting the government of Vespasian. Tacitus agreed that the prophecy discussed Vespasian (as well as Titus), but that "the common people, with the usual blindness of ambition, had interpreted these mighty destinies of themselves, and could not be brought even by disasters to believe the truth." After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and

5220-514: The question "is Josephus the author of the additions and modifications in the Slavonic version" has usually received a negative answer. Craig A Evans states that although some scholars had in the past supported the Slavonic Josephus , "to my knowledge no one today believes that they contain anything of value for Jesus research". Vespasian Vespasian ( / v ɛ s ˈ p eɪ ʒ ( i ) ən , - z i ən / ; Latin : Vespasianus [wɛspasiˈaːnʊs] ; 17 November AD 9 – 23 June 79)

5310-449: The relationship between languages. Similarities between Sanskrit and European languages were first noted in the early 16th century and led to speculation of a common ancestor language from which all these descended. It is now named Proto-Indo-European . Philology's interest in ancient languages led to the study of what was, in the 18th century, "exotic" languages, for the light they could cast on problems in understanding and deciphering

5400-561: The restoration and beautification of Rome: the Temple of Peace (also known as the Forum of Vespasian), new public baths and the great show piece, the Colosseum . Vespasian debased the denarius during his reign, reducing the silver purity from 93.5% to 90%. The silver weight dropped from 2.97 grams to 2.87 grams. Philological Philology (from Ancient Greek φιλολογία ( philología )  'love of word')

5490-508: The results of human mental processes. This science compares the results of textual science with the results of experimental research of both psychology and artificial intelligence production systems. In the case of Bronze Age literature , philology includes the prior decipherment of the language under study. This has notably been the case with the Egyptian , Sumerian , Assyrian , Hittite , Ugaritic , and Luwian languages. Beginning with

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5580-450: The same time as Sreznevsky, the subject was also studied by E. Barsov and by the end of the 19th century knowledge of the existence of the documents was established in the west via its listing by Niese and Destinon in 1894. The Estonian scholar Alexander Berendts published a German translation in 1906 and proposed the theory that the Slavonic version had been derived from the original Aramaic of Josephus. However, Paul L. Maier states that

5670-403: The second reference ( Antiquities 20:200) to Jesus involving his brother James. Given that the discussion involving these references is over the existence of such a person named Jesus, not an analysis into the divine or holy nature of that person, the overwhelming majority of experts agree that non-biblical sources attest to Jesus’ existence are proven valid. The earliest surviving manuscript of

5760-529: The style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies. As Pharaonic precedent demanded, Vespasian demonstrated his divine election by the traditional methods of spitting on and trampling a blind and crippled man, miraculously healing him, according to Egyptian religious elites. Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt on 21 December 69 through

5850-463: The terms φίλος ( phílos ) 'love, affection, loved, beloved, dear, friend' and λόγος ( lógos ) 'word, articulation, reason', describing a love of learning, of literature, as well as of argument and reasoning, reflecting the range of activities included under the notion of λόγος . The term changed little with the Latin philologia , and later entered the English language in the 16th century, from

5940-404: The text and destroys the integrity of the individual manuscript, hence damaging the reliability of the data. Supporters of new philology insist on a strict "diplomatic" approach: a faithful rendering of the text exactly as found in the manuscript, without emendations. Another branch of philology, cognitive philology, studies written and oral texts. Cognitive philology considers these oral texts as

6030-550: The treasury. Vespasian's policy was not well received by his son. Writing about Vespasian in their history books, Dio Cassius and Suetonius mentioned "When [Vespasian's] son Titus blamed him for even laying a tax upon urine, he applied to his nose a piece of the money he received in the first instalment, and asked him if it stunk. And he replying no, 'And yet,' said he, 'it is derived from urine". Since then, this phrase "Money does not stink" has been used to whitewash dubious or illegal origin of money . In early 70 Vespasian

6120-452: The tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb Pecunia non olet ("Money does not stink") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Before Vespasian, this tax was imposed by Emperor Nero under the name of vectigal urinae in the 1st century AD. However, the tax was removed after a while; it was re-enacted by Vespasian around AD 70 in order to fill

6210-530: The uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the rest of the empire in 70. Judea had been rebelling since 66 . Vespasian's son, Titus , finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70. According to Eusebius , Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of David to be hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province. Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been told by Josephus that he

6300-607: The west at the beginning of the 20th century, after its discovery in Russia at the end of the 19th century. While never a view shared by a majority of experts in the field, this view has been definitively refuted via the 1972 research of Hebrew University Professor Schlomo Pines into a 10th century Melkite translation by historian Agapius. Pines’ research shows the present day published Josephus text includes minor additions to its first reference to Jesus in Josephus’ original text (Antiquities 18:63) and most likely no modifications to

6390-401: The wider meaning of "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition" remains more widespread. Based on the harsh critique of Friedrich Nietzsche, some US scholars since the 1980s have viewed philology as responsible for a narrowly scientistic study of language and literature. Disagreements in the modern day of this branch of study are followed with the likes of how the method

6480-591: The year of civil war, and Bolanus was a mild governor. Agricola reimposed discipline on the legion and helped to consolidate Roman rule. In 71, Bolanus was replaced by a more aggressive governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis , and Agricola was able to display his talents as a commander in campaigns against the Brigantes in northern England. In his ninth consulship Vespasian had a slight illness in Campania and, returning at once to Rome, he left for Aquae Cutiliae and

6570-540: The years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained the nickname mulio (muleteer). Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece in Nero 's retinue, but lost Imperial favor after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest he fell asleep) during one of

6660-560: Was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors , he founded the Flavian dynasty , which ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolidation of the empire brought political stability and a vast building program. Vespasian was the first emperor from an equestrian family who rose only later in his lifetime into the senatorial rank as

6750-587: Was "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion, Suetonius writes, Vespasian was pelted with turnips . Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually, governorships were seen by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain the wealth they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was so rife that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North Africa making friends instead of money, something that would be far more valuable in

6840-672: Was declared emperor by the Senate. Little information survives about the government during Vespasian's ten-year rule. He reformed the financial system of the Roman Empire after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully, and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as the Roman Colosseum . Through his general Agricola , Vespasian increased imperial expansion in Britain. Vespasian

6930-469: Was educated in the countryside, in Cosa , near what is today Ansedonia , Italy , under the guidance of his paternal grandmother, so much so that even when he became emperor, he often returned to the places of his childhood, having left the former villa exactly as it had been. Early in his life he was somewhat overshadowed by his older brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus , who had entered public life and pursued

7020-614: Was entitled to stand for election as quaestor ; a senatorial office. But his lack of political or family influence meant that Vespasian served as quaestor in one of the provincial posts in Crete , rather than as assistant to important men in Rome. Next he needed to gain a praetorship, carrying the Imperium , but non- patricians and the less well-connected had to serve in at least one intermediary post as an aedile or tribune . Vespasian failed at his first attempt to gain an aedileship but

7110-475: Was especially generous to men of letters and rhetors , several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor. Pliny the Elder 's work, the Natural History , was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus. Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general. It

7200-525: Was eventually resumed by European scholars of the Renaissance , where it was soon joined by philologies of other European ( Romance , Germanic , Celtic ), Eurasian ( Slavic , etc.), Asian ( Arabic , Persian , Sanskrit , Chinese , etc.), and African ( Egyptian , Nubian , etc.) languages. Indo-European studies involve the comparative philology of all Indo-European languages . Philology, with its focus on historical development ( diachronic analysis),

7290-507: Was killed by a mob. At Alexandria , on receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death, the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently-needed grain to Rome, along with an edict assuring he would reverse the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason . While in Egypt, he visited the Temple of Serapis where he reportedly experienced a vision . Later, he was confronted by two labourers, who were convinced that he possessed

7380-413: Was narrowed to "the study of the historical development of languages" ( historical linguistics ) in 19th-century usage of the term. Due to the rapid progress made in understanding sound laws and language change , the "golden age of philology" lasted throughout the 19th century, or "from Giacomo Leopardi and Friedrich Schlegel to Nietzsche ". The comparative linguistics branch of philology studies

7470-627: Was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was probably reacting to other widely known Messianic prophecies circulating at the time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty. Titus attended the consecration of a new Apis bull at Memphis in 70, and Vespasian's reign saw imperial patronage given to Egyptian temples: at the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert as well as Esna , Kom Ombo , Medinet Habu , Silsila in

7560-419: Was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of rebellious Vindex . Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors. A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against him were removed. Vespasian also gave financial rewards to writers. The ancient historians who lived through

7650-418: Was still criticizing him, he sent the exiled philosopher the message: "You are doing everything to force me to kill you, but I do not slay a barking dog." According to Suetonius, Vespasian "bore the frank language of his friends, the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest patience". He was also noted for his benefactions to the people. Much money was spent on public works and

7740-610: Was still in Egypt, the source of Rome's grain supply, and had not yet left for Rome. According to Tacitus , his trip was delayed due to bad weather. Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing. Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt. During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain shipments to Rome resumed. In addition to

7830-580: Was struggling to get on his feet, he died in the arms of those who tried to help him, on the ninth day before the Kalends of July [June 23], at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months and seven days. He died on June 23, 79 AD, and was succeeded by his sons Titus and then Domitian . Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his commanding personality and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity. He

7920-436: Was successful in his second attempt, becoming an aedile in 38. Despite his lack of significant family connections or success in office, he achieved praetorship in either 39 or 40, at the youngest age permitted (30), during a period of political upheaval in the organisation of elections. His long-standing relationship with freed-woman Antonia Caenis , confidential secretary to Antonia Minor (the Emperor's grandmother) and part of

8010-430: Was suppressed by Vespasian's son-in-law, Quintus Petillius Cerialis , by the end of 70. In mid-70, Vespasian first went to Rome, dating his tribunician years from 1 July 69. Vespasian immediately embarked on a series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to many in the military and much of the public. Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished. Vespasian also restructured

8100-477: Was the talk of philosophers, who liked to glorify the Republic , that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only Helvidius Priscus was put to death after he repeatedly affronted the Emperor with studied insults which Vespasian initially tried to ignore. The philosopher Demetrius was banished to an island and when Vespasian heard that Demetrius

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